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`Case: 4:21-cv-00287-AGF Doc. #: 28 Filed: 06/04/21 Page: 1 of 68 PageID #: 593
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`UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT
`EASTERN DISTRICT OF MISSOURI
`EASTERN DIVISION
`
`
`THE STATE OF MISSOURI, et al.,
`
` Plaintiffs,
`
` v.
`
`JOSEPH R. BIDEN, JR., in his official
`capacity as President of the United States,
`et al.,
`
`
` Defendants.1
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`Case No. 4:21-cv-00287-AGF
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`
`
`DEFENDANTS’ COMBINED MEMORANDUM OF LAW IN SUPPORT OF
`MOTION TO DISMISS AND IN OPPOSITION TO PLAINTIFFS’
`MOTION FOR A PRELIMINARY INJUNCTION
`
` BRIAN M. BOYNTON
` Acting Assistant Attorney General
`
` SAYLER A. FLEMING
` United States Attorney
`
` ERIC WOMACK
` Assistant Branch Director
` Federal Programs Branch
`
` STEPHEN M. PEZZI, #84311 (VA)
` CODY T. KNAPP, #5715438 (NY)
` Trial Attorneys
` United States Department of Justice
` Civil Division, Federal Programs Branch
`Attorneys for Defendants
`
`
`1 Pursuant to Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 25(d), Shalanda Young (Acting Director of the
`Office of Management and Budget) and Dr. Eric S. Lander (Director of the Office of Science and
`Technology Policy) are automatically substituted as Defendants in their official capacities for their
`predecessors, Robert Fairweather and Kei Koizumi (respectively).
`
`
`
`
`

`

`Case: 4:21-cv-00287-AGF Doc. #: 28 Filed: 06/04/21 Page: 2 of 68 PageID #: 594
`
`TABLE OF CONTENTS
`
`INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................1
`
`BACKGROUND .................................................................................................................... 3
`
`I.
`
`Factual Background ................................................................................................... 3
`
`A.
`
`B.
`
`Requiring cost-benefit analysis is a longstanding presidential practice. ............................ 3
`
`Federal agencies assess the costs and benefits of changes in greenhouse gas
`emissions when conducting cost-benefit analyses. .................................................................. 5
`
`1.
`
`2.
`
`Past Federal Estimates of the Social Cost of Greenhouse Gases ........................ 5
`
`Executive Order 13990 and the Working Group’s 2021 Interim Estimates..11
`
`II.
`
`Procedural Background ............................................................................................. 13
`
`ARGUMENT........................................................................................................................ 13
`
`I.
`
`THE COURT LACKS SUBJECT-MATTER JURISDICTION. ............................... 14
`
`A.
`
`Plaintiffs lack Article III standing. ..............................................................................................15
`
`1.
`
`2.
`
`3.
`
`4.
`
`The possibility that Plaintiffs will suffer a future injury—let alone an injury
`actually caused by the Executive Order—is speculative.......................................15
`
`Any injury would be traceable to future, hypothetical agency actions, not to
`the Executive Order or the Interim Estimates. .......................................................21
`
`Plaintiffs’ alleged injuries are not redressable by a victory in this lawsuit. ......24
`
`Plaintiffs’ remaining, miscellaneous bases for standing are meritless. ..............26
`
`B.
`
`Plaintiffs’ claims are not ripe. .......................................................................................................30
`
`II.
`
`PLAINTIFFS LACK A CAUSE OF ACTION...........................................................37
`
`A.
`
`B.
`
`C.
`
`Plaintiffs do not challenge any final agency action. ...............................................................37
`
`The APA provides no cause of action to sue the President or the Working Group..39
`
`Plaintiffs cannot rely on an implied equitable cause of action for their separation-of-
`powers claim. .....................................................................................................................................42
`
`III.
`
`PLAINTIFFS’ CLAIMS ARE MERITLESS. ............................................................43
`
`A.
`
`Plaintiffs’ statutory claims are meritless. ...................................................................................43
`
`
`
`i
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`

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`B.
`
`C.
`
`D.
`
`Plaintiffs’ constitutional claims are meritless...........................................................................44
`
`Plaintiffs’ notice-and-comment claims are meritless.............................................................48
`
`Any remaining claims against the Defendants other than the President or the
`Working Group should be dismissed for failure to state a claim......................................50
`
`IV.
`
`PLAINTIFFS ARE NOT ENTITLED TO A PRELIMINARY INJUNCTION. .... 51
`
`A.
`
`B.
`
`C.
`
`Plaintiffs cannot show imminent, irreparable harm. .............................................................51
`
`The public interest would be disserved by a preliminary injunction................................53
`
`Any relief should be limited to declaring the Interim Estimates non-binding. ............54
`
`CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................55
`
`
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`
`ii
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`Case: 4:21-cv-00287-AGF Doc. #: 28 Filed: 06/04/21 Page: 4 of 68 PageID #: 596
`
`TABLE OF AUTHORITIES
`
`Cases
`
`Abbott Labs. v. Gardner,
`387 U.S. 136 (1967) ..................................................................................................................................................30
`
`Alexander v. Sandoval,
`532 U.S. 275 (2001) ..................................................................................................................................................37
`
`Alfred L. Snapp & Son, Inc. v. Puerto Rico, ex rel., Barez,
`458 U.S. 592 (1982) ..................................................................................................................................................27
`
`Ali v. Rumsfeld,
`649 F.3d 762 (D.C. Cir. 2011) ...............................................................................................................................42
`
`Almaklani v. Trump,
`444 F. Supp. 3d 425 (E.D.N.Y. 2020) ................................................................................................................39
`
`Am. Textile Mfrs. Inst., Inc. v. Donovan,
`452 U.S. 490 (1981) ..................................................................................................................................................36
`
`Armstrong v. Exec. Off. of the President,
`90 F.3d 553 (D.C. Cir. 1996) .................................................................................................................................41
`
`ASARCO Inc. v. Kadish,
`490 U.S. 605 (1989) ..................................................................................................................................................16
`
`Batsche v. Price,
`875 F.3d 1176 (8th Cir. 2017)................................................................................................................................37
`
`Bennett v. Spear,
`520 U.S. 154 (1997) ....................................................................................................................................35, 37, 38
`
`Bldg. & Const. Trades Dep’t, AFL-CIO v. Allbaugh,
`295 F.3d 28 (D.C. Cir. 2002) ..........................................................................................................................33, 46
`
`California v. Bernhardt,
`472 F. Supp. 3d 573 (N.D. Cal. 2020) ..................................................................................................18, 24, 32
`
`California v. Trump,
`No. 19-cv-960 (RDM), 2020 WL 1643858 (D.D.C. Apr. 2, 2020).....................................................19, 44
`
`Care Comm. v. Arneson,
`638 F.3d 621 (8th Cir. 2011) ..................................................................................................................................30
`
`Center for Biological Diversity v. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration,
`538 F.3d 1172 (9th Cir. 2008)..........................................................................................................................passim
`
`
`
`iii
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`

`

`Case: 4:21-cv-00287-AGF Doc. #: 28 Filed: 06/04/21 Page: 5 of 68 PageID #: 597
`
`Citizens Telecommunications Co. of Minnesota, LLC v. FCC,
`901 F.3d 991 (8th Cir. 2018) ..................................................................................................................................50
`
`City of Kennett, Missouri v. EPA,
`887 F.3d 424 (8th Cir. 2018) ...........................................................................................................................15, 16
`
`City of Tacoma v. Taxpayers,
`357 U.S. 320 (1958) ..................................................................................................................................................36
`
`Clapper v. Amnesty Int’l USA,
`568 U.S. 398 (2013) ....................................................................................................................................15, 16, 29
`
`Carlson v. Postal Regul. Comm’n,
`938 F.3d 337 (D.C. Cir. 2019) ...............................................................................................................................37
`
`Correctional Servs. Corp. v. Malesko,
`534 U.S. 61 (2001).....................................................................................................................................................43
`
`Daimler Chrysler Corp. v. Cuno,
`547 U.S. 332 (2006) ..................................................................................................................................................16
`
`Dataphase Sys., Inc. v. C L Sys., Inc.,
`640 F.2d 109 (8th Cir. 1981) ...........................................................................................................................51, 52
`
`Duffner v. City of St. Peters, Missouri,
`930 F.3d 973 (8th Cir. 2019) ...........................................................................................................................30, 32
`
`EarthReports, Inc. v. FERC,
`828 F.3d 949 (D.C. Cir. 2016) ...............................................................................................................................32
`
`Entergy Corp. v. Riverkeeper, Inc.,
`556 U.S. 208 (2009) ..................................................................................................................................................36
`
`Fed. Forest Res. Coal. v. Vilsack,
`100 F. Supp. 3d 21 (D.D.C. 2015) .......................................................................................................................17
`
`Frank v. City of St. Louis,
`458 F. Supp. 3d 1090 (E.D. Mo. 2020) ..............................................................................................................51
`
`Franklin v. Massachusetts,
`505 U.S. 788 (1992) ....................................................................................................................................25, 26, 39
`
`Free Enter. Fund v. Pub. Co. Accounting Oversight Bd.,
`561 U.S. 477 (2010) ...........................................................................................................................................45, 47
`
`Golden Gate Rest. Ass’n v. City & Cty. of San Francisco,
`512 F.3d 1112 (9th Cir. 2008)................................................................................................................................53
`
`
`
`iv
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`Case: 4:21-cv-00287-AGF Doc. #: 28 Filed: 06/04/21 Page: 6 of 68 PageID #: 598
`
`Gonnella v. SEC,
`954 F.3d 536 (2d Cir. 2020) ...................................................................................................................................48
`
`Gov’t of Manitoba v. Bernhardt,
`923 F.3d 173 (D.C. Cir. 2019) ........................................................................................................................26, 27
`
`Helicopter Ass’n Int’l, Inc. v. FAA,
`722 F.3d 430 (D.C. Cir. 2013) ...............................................................................................................................19
`
`High Country Conservation Advocs. v. U.S. Forest Serv.,
`52 F. Supp. 3d 1174 (D. Colo. 2014) ..................................................................................................................32
`
`Iowa ex rel. Miller v. Block,
`771 F.2d 347 (8th Cir. 1985) ..................................................................................................................................27
`
`Iowa League of Cities v. EPA,
`711 F.3d 844 (8th Cir. 2013) ..................................................................................................................................37
`
`Jicarilla Apache Nation v. U.S. Dep’t of Interior,
`613 F.3d 1112 (D.C. Cir. 2010).............................................................................................................................49
`
`Johnson v. State of Mo.,
`142 F.3d 1087 (8th Cir. 1998)..................................................................................................................16, 30, 31
`
`Jones v. Gale,
`470 F.3d 1261 (8th Cir. 2006)................................................................................................................................26
`
`Lance v. Coffman,
`549 U.S. 437 (2007) ..................................................................................................................................................27
`
`Lincoln v. Vigil,
`508 U.S. 182 (1993) ..................................................................................................................................................48
`
`Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife,
`504 U.S. 555 (1992) ....................................................................................................................................15, 24, 28
`
`M.S. v. Brown,
`902 F.3d 1076 (9th Cir. 2018)................................................................................................................................25
`
`Main St. Legal Servs., Inc. v. Nat’l Sec. Council,
`811 F.3d 542 (2d Cir. 2016) ............................................................................................................................40, 41
`
`Massachusetts v. Mellon,
`262 U.S. 447 (1923) ...........................................................................................................................................27, 29
`
`Mazurek v. Armstrong,
`520 U.S. 968 (1997) ..................................................................................................................................................51
`
`
`
`v
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`Case: 4:21-cv-00287-AGF Doc. #: 28 Filed: 06/04/21 Page: 7 of 68 PageID #: 599
`
`Meyer v. Bush,
`981 F.2d 1288 (D.C. Cir. 1993)......................................................................................................................40, 44
`
`Michigan Corr. Org. v. Michigan Dep’t of Corr.,
`774 F.3d 895 (6th Cir. 2014) ..................................................................................................................................42
`
`Michigan v. EPA,
`576 U.S. 743 (2015) ..................................................................................................................................................36
`
`Mississippi v. Johnson,
`71 U.S. (4 Wall.) 475 (1867) ...................................................................................................................................25
`
`Missouri v. Yellen,
`No. 4:21-cv-376 (HEA), --- F. Supp. 3d ----, 2021 WL 1889867 (E.D. Mo. May 11, 2021) ..34, 51
`
`Mo. Roundtable for Life v. Carnahan,
`676 F.3d 665 (8th Cir. 2012) ..................................................................................................................................30
`
`N.J. Conservation Found. v. FERC,
`353 F. Supp. 3d 289 (D.N.J. 2018) ......................................................................................................................36
`
`Nat’l Ass’n of Home Builders v. EPA,
`667 F.3d 6 (D.C. Cir. 2011)....................................................................................................................................17
`
`Nat’l Ass’n of Home Builders v. EPA,
`682 F.3d 1032 (D.C. Cir. 2012)................................................................................................................. 5, 19, 20
`
`Nat’l Cable & Telecommunications Ass’n v. Brand X Internet Servs.,
`545 U.S. 967 (2005) ..................................................................................................................................................45
`
`Nat’l Mining Ass’n v. Sec’y of Labor,
`589 F.3d 1368 (11th Cir. 2009) .............................................................................................................................48
`
`Nat’l Park Hosp. Ass’n v. Dep’t of Interior,
`538 U.S. 803 (2003) ............................................................................................................................................passim
`
`Nat’l Sec. Comm’n on A.I.,
`466 F. Supp. 3d 100 (D.D.C. 2020) .....................................................................................................................40
`
`Nat’l Truck Equip. Ass’n v. NHTSA,
`711 F.3d 662 (6th Cir. 2013) .................................................................................................................................... 5
`
`Newdow v. Roberts,
`603 F.3d 1002 (D.C. Cir. 2010).............................................................................................................................26
`
`Nken v. Holder,
`556 U.S. 418 (2009) ..................................................................................................................................................51
`
`
`
`vi
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`Case: 4:21-cv-00287-AGF Doc. #: 28 Filed: 06/04/21 Page: 8 of 68 PageID #: 600
`
`Norton v. S. Utah Wilderness All.,
`542 U.S. 55 (2004).....................................................................................................................................................39
`
`Novus Franchising, Inc. v. Dawson,
`725 F.3d 885 (8th Cir. 2013) ..................................................................................................................................55
`
`Nw. Nat'l Bank v. U.S. Dep't of the Treasury,
`917 F.2d 1111 (8th Cir. 1990)................................................................................................................................48
`
`CREW v. Off. of Admin.,
`566 F.3d 219 (D.C. Cir. 2009) ........................................................................................................................39, 40
`
`Ohio Forestry Association v. Sierra Club,
`523 U.S. 726 (1998) ...........................................................................................................................................31, 34
`
`Pac. Gas & Elec. Co. v. Fed. Power Comm’n,
`506 F.2d 33 (D.C. Cir. 1974) .................................................................................................................................48
`
`Pennsylvania v. New Jersey,
`426 U.S. 660 (1976) ..................................................................................................................................................29
`
`Reno v. Cath. Soc. Servs., Inc.,
`509 U.S. 43 (1993)..............................................................................................................................................30, 31
`
`Sackett v. EPA,
`566 U.S. 120 (2012) ...........................................................................................................................................37, 38
`
`Schlesinger v. Reservists Comm. to Stop the War,
`418 U.S. 208 (1974) ...........................................................................................................................................27, 28
`
`Seila Law LLC v. CFPB,
`140 S. Ct. 2183 (2020)..............................................................................................................................................47
`
`Seminole Tribe v. Florida,
`517 U.S. 44 (1996).....................................................................................................................................................43
`
`Sierra Club v. Costle,
`657 F.2d 298 (D.C. Cir. 1981) ...............................................................................................................................46
`
`Sierra Club v. U.S. Army Corps of Eng’rs,
`446 F.3d 808 (8th Cir. 2006) ..................................................................................................................................37
`
`Simon v. E. Kentucky Welfare Rts. Org.,
`426 U.S. 26 (1976)..............................................................................................................................................19, 21
`
`Sisseton-Wahpeton Oyate of Lake Traverse Rsrv. v. U.S. Corps of Engr’s,
`888 F.3d 906 (8th Cir. 2018) ...........................................................................................................................37, 38
`
`
`
`vii
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`Case: 4:21-cv-00287-AGF Doc. #: 28 Filed: 06/04/21 Page: 9 of 68 PageID #: 601
`
`Soucie v. David,
`448 F.2d 1067 (D.C. Cir. 1971).............................................................................................................................41
`
`Soundboard Ass’n v. FTC,
`888 F.3d 1261 (D.C. Cir. 2018)...............................................................................................................38, 39, 42
`
`Spokeo, Inc. v. Robins,
`136 S. Ct. 1540 (2016)........................................................................................................................................passim
`
`St. Louis Effort for AIDS v. Huff,
`782 F.3d 1016 (8th Cir. 2015)................................................................................................................................54
`
`St. Louis Univ. v. Duncan,
`97 F. Supp. 3d 1106 (E.D. Mo. 2015).................................................................................................................50
`
`State of Mo. ex rel. Mo. Highway & Transp. Comm’n v. Cuffley,
`112 F.3d 1332 (8th Cir. 1997)................................................................................................................................31
`
`Steel Co. v. Citizens for a Better Env’t,
`523 U.S. 83 (1998).....................................................................................................................................................17
`
`Stenger v. Bi-State Dev. Agency of Missouri/Illinois Metro. Dist.,
`No. 14-cv-1655-AGF, 2015 WL 164044 (E.D. Mo. Jan. 13, 2015), aff’d, 808 F.3d 734 (8th Cir.
`2015) ..............................................................................................................................................................................42
`
`Summers v. Earth Island Inst.,
`555 U.S. 488 (2009) ............................................................................................................................................passim
`
`Swan v. Clinton,
`100 F.3d 973 (D.C. Cir. 1996) ...............................................................................................................................26
`
`Texas v. United States,
`523 U.S. 296 (1998) ..................................................................................................................................................34
`
`Town of Chester, N.Y. v. Laroe Ests., Inc.,
`137 S. Ct. 1645 (2017)..............................................................................................................................................28
`
`Trump v. New York,
`141 S. Ct. 530 (2020) ........................................................................................................................................... 2, 30
`
`United States v. Johnson,
`632 F.3d 912 (5th Cir. 2011) ..................................................................................................................................50
`
`Warth v. Seldin,
`422 U.S. 490 (1975) ..................................................................................................................................................30
`
`Watkins Inc. v. Lewis,
`346 F.3d 841 (8th Cir. 2003) ..................................................................................................................................52
`
`
`
`viii
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`

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`Case: 4:21-cv-00287-AGF Doc. #: 28 Filed: 06/04/21 Page: 10 of 68 PageID #: 602
`
`Whitman v. Am. Trucking Ass’ns,
`531 U.S. 457 (2001) ...........................................................................................................................................36, 45
`
`Whitmore v. Arkansas,
`495 U.S. 149 (1990) ..................................................................................................................................................15
`
`WildEarth Guardians v. Bernhardt,
`2021 WL 363955 (D. Mont. Feb. 3, 2021) ........................................................................................................32
`
`Winter v. Nat. Res. Def. Council, Inc.,
`555 U.S. 7 (2008) ................................................................................................................................................51, 53
`
`Wyoming v. Dep’t of the Interior,
`493 F. Supp. 3d 1046 (D. Wyo. 2020) ................................................................................................................32
`
`Wyoming v. Oklahoma,
`502 U.S. 437 (1992) ..................................................................................................................................................27
`
`Yakus v. United States,
`321 U.S. 414 (1944) ....................................................................................................................................21, 47, 48
`
`Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer,
`343 U.S. 579 (1952) ...........................................................................................................................................43, 46
`
`Zero Zone, Inc. v. United States Dep’t of Energy,
`832 F.3d 654 (7th Cir. 2016) ............................................................................................................... 9, 18, 32, 49
`
`Executive Orders
`
`Executive Order 11246 (Sept. 24, 1965) .................................................................................................................47
`
`Executive Order 12044 (Mar. 23, 1978).................................................................................................................... 3
`
`Executive Order 12291 (Feb. 17, 1981) ........................................................................................................ 3, 4, 40
`
`Executive Order 12866 (Sept. 30, 1993) ...........................................................................................................passim
`
`Executive Order 13202 (Feb. 17, 2001) ..................................................................................................................46
`
`Executive Order 13783 (Mar. 28, 2017)....................................................................................................11, 12, 42
`
`Executive Order 13990 (Jan. 20, 2021) .............................................................................................................passim
`
`Executive Order 14008 (Jan. 27, 2021) ...................................................................................................................54
`
`Constitutional Provisions
`
`U.S. Const. Art. II ...................................................................................................................................................45, 46
`
`
`
`ix
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`Case: 4:21-cv-00287-AGF Doc. #: 28 Filed: 06/04/21 Page: 11 of 68 PageID #: 603
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`Statutes
`
`5 U.S.C. § 553 ..................................................................................................................................................................48
`
`5 U.S.C. § 701(b)(1) ................................................................................................................................................39, 42
`
`5 U.S.C. § 702 ....................................................................................................................................................26, 29, 39
`
`5 U.S.C. § 704 ...........................................................................................................................................................37, 39
`
`5 U.S.C. § 706 ...........................................................................................................................................................42, 49
`
`15 U.S.C. § 717r(b).........................................................................................................................................................36
`
`28 U.S.C. §§ 2201-2202 ................................................................................................................................................42
`
`42 U.S.C. § 4321 .............................................................................................................................................................28
`
`49 U.S.C. § 32902(a) ........................................................................................................................................................ 6
`
`Rules
`
`Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 12(b)(1) ................................................................................................................37
`
`Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 12(b)(6) .........................................................................................................37, 43
`
`Regulatory Documents
`
`40 C.F.R. § 1502.22 (2020) ..........................................................................................................................................28
`
`Average Fuel Economy Standards for Light Trucks Model Years 2008-2011,
`71 Fed. Reg. 17566 (Apr. 6, 2006) ......................................................................................................................... 6
`
`Certification of New Interstate Natural Gas Facilities,
`86 Fed. Reg. 11,268-72 (Feb. 24, 2021).......................................................................................................34, 35
`
`EPA, Regulatory Impact Analysis for the Review of the Clean Power Plan: Proposal,
`(2017) ............................................................................................................................................................................11
`
`Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Certain Consumer Products,
`73 Fed. Reg. 62034 (Oct. 17, 2008) ....................................................................................................................... 7
`
`Endangerment & Cause or Contribute Findings for Greenhouse Gases Under Section 202(a) of the Clean Air Act,
`74 Fed. Reg. 66496 (Dec. 15, 2009)....................................................................................................................... 6
`
`Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Fuel Efficiency Standards for Medium- and Heavy-Duty Engines and Vehicles,
`81 Fed. Reg. 73478 (Dec. 27, 2016).....................................................................................................................50
`
`Notice of Availability,
`78 Fed. Reg. 70586 (Nov. 26, 2013)...................................................................................................................... 9
`
`
`
`x
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`Case: 4:21-cv-00287-AGF Doc. #: 28 Filed: 06/04/21 Page: 12 of 68 PageID #: 604
`
`Notice of Availability and Request for Comment on ‘‘Technical Support Document: Social Cost of Carbon, Methane,
`and Nitrous Oxide Interim Estimates Under E.O. 13990”,
`86 Fed. Reg. 24669 (May 7, 2021)........................................................................................................................13
`
`Oil and Natural Gas Sector: New Source Performance Standards and National Emission Standards for Hazardous
`Air Pollutants Reviews