`
` by Mark Grand <mdg@netcom.com>
`
` Revised October 26, 1993
`
`Internet e‐mail allows mail messages to be exchanged between
`users of computers around the world and occasionally beyond_ to
`space shuttles. One of the main reasons that Internet e‐mail
`has achieved such wide use is because it provides a standard
`mechanism for messages to be exchanged between over 1,000,000
`computers connected to the Internet.
`
`The standards that are the basis for Internet e‐mail were
`established in 1982. Though they were state of the art in 1982,
`in the intervening years they have begun to show their age. The
`1982 standards allow for mail messages that contain a single
`human readable message with the restrictions that:
`
` * the message contains only ASCII characters.
`
` * the message contains no lines longer than 1000 characters.
`
` * the message does not exceed a certain length
`
`The 1982 standards do not allow EDI to be reliably transmitted
`through Internet e‐mail, since EDI messages can violate all of
`these restrictions. There are a number of other types of
`messages and services that have are supported by other more
`recently designed e‐mail standards. A new Internet mail
`standard was approved in June of 1992. The new standard is
`called MIME.
`
`MIME is an acronym for Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions.
`It builds on the older standard by standardizing additional
`fields for mail message headers that describe new types of
`content and organization for messages.
`
`MIME allows mail messages to contain:
`
` * Multiple objects in a single message.
`
` * Text having unlimited line length or overall length.
`
` * Character sets other than ASCII, allowing non‐English
` language messages.
`
` * Multi‐font messages.
`
` * Binary or application specific files.
`
` * Images, Audio, Video and multi‐media messages.
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`AT&T EXHIBIT 1037
`
`
`
`MIME defines the following new header fields:
`
`1. The MIME‐Version header field, which uses a version number to
` declare that a message conforms to the MIME standard.
`
`2. The Content‐Type header field, which can be used to specify the type
` and subtype of data in the body of a message and to fully specify
` the encoding of such data.
`
` 2.a. The Content‐Type value Text, which can be used to represent
` textual information in a number of character sets and
` formatted text description languages in a standardized manner.
`
` 2.b. The Content‐Type value Multipart, which can be used to
` combine several body parts, possibly of differing types of
` data, into a single message.
`
` 2.c. The Content‐Type value Application, which can be used to
` transmit application data or binary data.
`
` 2.d. The Content‐Type value Message, for encapsulating a mail
` message.
`
` 2.e. The Content‐Type value Image, for transmitting still image
` (picture) data.
`
` 2.f. The Content‐Type value Audio, for transmitting audio or
` voice data.
`
` 2.g. The Content‐Type value Video, for transmitting video or
` moving image data, possibly with audio as part of the
` composite video data format.
`
`3. The Content‐Transfer‐Encoding header field, that specifies how the
` data is encoded to allow it to pass through mail transports having
` data or character set limitations.
`
`4. Two header fields that can be used to further identify and describe
` the data in a message body: the Content‐ID and Content‐Description
` header fields.
`
`MIME is an extensible mechanism. It is expected that the set of
`content‐type/subtype pairs and their associated parameters will grow
`with time. Several other MIME fields, such as character set names, are
`likely to have new values defined over time. To ensure that the set of
`such values develops in an orderly, and public manner, MIME defines a
`registration process that uses the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
`(IANA) as a central registry for such values.
`
`To promote interoperability between implementations, the MIME standard
`document specifies a minimal subset of the above mechanisms that are
`required for an implementation to claim to conform to the MIME standard.
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`MIME Technical Summary
`
`MIME is defined by an Internet standard document called RFC 1521. This
`document summarizes the contents of RFC 1521. Sufficient detail is
`presented here to understand the capabilities of MIME. For sufficient
`detail to implement MIME please read RFC 1521.
`
`MIME allows messages to contain multiple objects. When multiple objects
`are in a MIME message, they are represented in a form called a body
`part. A body part has a header and a body, so it makes sense to speak
`about the body of a body part. Also, body parts can be nested in bodies
`that contain one or multiple body parts.
`
`The Content‐Type values, subtypes, and parameter names defined in the
`MIME standard are case‐insensitive. However, many parameter values are
`case sensitive
`
`The MIME standard is written to allow MIME to be extended in certain
`ways, without having to revise the standard. MIME specifies sets of
`values that are allowed for various fields and parameters. The provides
`a procedure for extending these sets of values by registering them with
`an entity called the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA).
`
`The MIME‐Version Header Field
`
`MIME is designed to be compatible with older Internet mail standards. In
`particular, it is compatible with RFC 822. If a mail reading program
`receives a message that is a MIME message then it will likely perform
`additional processing for the MIME message that it would not perform for
`non‐MIME messages. To allow mail reading programs to recognize MIME
`messages, MIME messages are required to contain a MIME‐Version header
`field. The MIME‐Version header field specifies the version of the MIME
`standard that the message conforms to.
`
`As of this writing, there is only version (1.0) of the MIME standard.
`Messages that comply with the standard must include a header field, with
`the following verbatim text:
`
`MIME‐Version: 1.0
`
`The MIME‐Version header field is required at the top level of a message.
`It is not required for each body part of a multipart entity. It is
`required for the embedded headers of a body of type Message if and only
`if the embedded message is claimed to be MIME‐compliant.
`
`The Content‐Type Header Field
`
`The Content‐Type field describes the data contained in a body fully
`enough that the mail reader can pick an appropriate mechanism to present
`the data to the user, or otherwise deal with the data appropriately.
`
`The Content‐Type header field is used to specify the nature of data in
`the body or body part, by giving type and subtype identifiers, and by
`providing parameters that may be needed for certain types. After the
`type and subtype names, the remainder of the header field is a set of
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`parameters, specified in an attribute=value notation. The set of
`meaningful parameters differs for different types. The order of
`parameters is not significant. Comments are allowed (in accordance with
`RFC 822 rules) in structured header fields by placing them in
`parentheses.
`
`The top‐level Content‐Type is used to declare the general type of data,
`while the subtype specifies a specific format for that type of data.
`Thus, a Content‐Type of Image/xyz is enough to tell a mail reader that
`the data is an image, even if the mail reader has no knowledge of the
`specific image format xyz. Such information can be used, to decide
`whether or not to show a user the raw data from an unrecognized subtype
`_ such an action might be reasonable for unrecognized subtypes of Text,
`but not for unrecognized subtypes of Image or Audio. For this reason,
`registered subtypes of Audio, Image, Text, and Video, should not contain
`embedded information that is really of a different type. Such compound
`types are usually represented using the Multipart or Application types.
`
`Parameters are modifiers of the content‐subtype. Although most
`parameters make sense only with certain content‐types, others are
`"global" in the sense that they might apply to any subtype. For
`example, the Boundary parameter, which is used to indicate how body
`parts are separated from each other, makes sense only for the Multipart
`content‐type. The Charset parameter might make sense with several
`content‐types.
`
`The MIME standard defines seven content‐types. The authors of the MIME
`standard state that the set of seven types is "substantially complete".
`They expect additional supported types to be accommodated by creating
`new subtypes of the seven initial top‐level types. The MIME standard,
`functioning as a constitution for the MIME community, states that new
`standard content types can be defined only by revising the standard (as
`opposed to the registration procedure for other types of extensions).
`However, MIME does provide for the use of non‐standard content types.
`Non‐standard content‐types can be used, but must be given names starting
`with X‐. Future standard content type names will not begin with X‐.
`
`The syntax for the content type header field is
`
` Content‐Type := type "/" subtype [";" parameter]_
`
`The defined content types are:
`
` Application
` indicates data that does not fit into any of the other
` categories, such as uninterpreted binary data or information
` to be processed by a mail‐based application. In addition to
` the following subtypes, it is likely that additional subtypes
` will be defined for applications such as mail‐based scheduling
` systems, spreadsheets and EDI.
`
` Application/Octet‐Stream
` indicates uninterpreted binary data, which a mail reading
` program may simply offer to write the information into a
` file. Possible parameters for Application/Octet‐Stream
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`
` include:
`
` Name
` a suggested name for the binary data if stored as a file.
`
` Type
` the general type or category of binary data. This
` is intended for human recipients rather than for
` automated processing.
`
` Padding
` the number of bits of padding that were appended to
` the bit stream comprising the actual contents to
` produce the enclosed byte‐oriented data. This is
` useful for enclosing a bit stream in a body when the
` total number of bits is not a multiple of the byte
` size.
`
` Application/PostScript
`
` indicates a body containing a postscript document.
`
` Audio
` Indicates audio data. Audio requires an audio output device
` (such as a speaker or a telephone) to "display" the contents.
`
` Audio/Basic
` The content of the Audio/Basic subtype is audio encoded using
` 8‐bit ISDN u‐law. When this subtype is present, a sample rate
` of 8000 Hz and a single channel is assumed.
`
` Image
` Image data. Image requires a display device (such as a
` graphical display, a printer, or a FAX machine) to view the
` information.
`
` Image/Jpeg
` indicates an image in JPEG format.
`
` Image/Gif
` indicates an image in GIF format.
`
` Message
` indicates an encapsulated message.
`
` Message/RFC822
` indicates that the body contains an encapsulated message,
` with the syntax of an RFC 822 message. This is useful
` when forwarding a message or transmitting a digest of
` messages, because it makes the beginning and end of such
` messages explicit.
`
` Message/Partial
` indicates a partial message, allowing fragmented
` transmission of bodies too large to be passed through
` mail transport facilities. Message/Partial indicates
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`
` that the body contains a fragment of a larger message.
`
` Three parameters are required in a Content‐Type field of
` type Message/Partial: The first, Id, is a unique
` identifier, as close to world‐unique as possible, used to
` match the parts together. The second, Number, an
` integer, is the part number indicating where this part
` fits into the sequence of fragments. The third, Total,
` another integer, is the total number of parts. Total is
` required on the final part, and optional on earlier
` parts.
`
` Message/External‐Body
` indicates that the actual body data are not included, but
` only referenced. In this case, parameters describe a
` mechanism for accessing the external data.
`
` When a body or body part is of type
` Message/External‐Body, it consists of a header, a blank
` line, and the message header for the encapsulated
` message. If another blank line appears, this ends the
` message header for the encapsulated message. However,
` since the encapsulated message's body is itself external,
` it does not appear in the area that follows. For
` example, consider this message:
`
` Content‐type: message/external‐body;
` access‐type=local‐file;
` name="/u/nsb/Me.gif"
`
` Content‐type: image/gif
` Content‐ID: <id42@guppylake.bellcore.com>
` Content‐Transfer‐Encoding: binary
`
` THIS IS NOT REALLY THE BODY!
`
` The area at the end, which constitutes a phantom body, is
` ignored for most external‐body messages. However, it may
` be used to contain auxiliary information for a
` "mail‐server".
`
` The only parameter of Message/External‐Body that is
` always mandatory is AccessType. Its other parameters are
` mandatory or optional depending on the value of
` Access‐Type. The values defined for the AccessType
` parameter are FTP, ANON‐FTP, TFTP, AFS, LOCAL‐FILE, and
` MAIL‐SERVER. Except for values beginning with X‐, all
` other values must be registered with IANA.
`
` The standard specifies additional parameters for use in
` conjunction with the various access types.
`
` In addition to access‐type specific parameters, the
` standard defines the following parameters that are
` optional for all access types:
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` * The Expiration parameter specifies a date after which
` the existence of the external data is not guaranteed.
`
` * The Size parameter specifies the size of the data.
`
` The encapsulated headers in all message/external‐body
` entities must include a Content‐ID header field to give a
` unique identifier by which to reference the data.
`
` Multipart
` indicates data consisting of multiple body parts; each having
` its own data type. It is possible to tell where each body
` part begins and ends because each body part is preceded by a
` special string called an encapsulation boundary; the last body
` part is followed by a closing boundary.
`
` The mandatory parameter Boundary specifies the boundary
` strings used. The encapsulation boundary is an end of line
` followed by two hyphens followed by the boundary parameter
` value of the Content‐Type header field. The closing boundary
` is the same as the encapsulation boundary with the addition of
` two hyphens at the end of the line.
`
` The encapsulation boundary must not appear inside any of the
` encapsulated parts. It is crucial that the composing user
` agent be able to choose and specify the unique boundary that
` will separate the body parts. Encapsulation boundaries may be
` no longer than 70 characters, not counting the blank line and
` leading hyphens.
`
` Thus, a typical multipart Content‐Type header field might look
` like:
`
` Content‐Type: multipart/mixed; boundary=gc0y0pkb9ex
`
` This indicates a body consisting of several body parts, each
` having a structure syntactically identical to an RFC 822
` message, except that the header area may be completely empty,
` and each part is preceded by the line
`
` ‐‐gc0y0pkb9ex
`
` The closing boundary following the last body part indicates
` that no further body parts will follow. It is identical to
` the preceding encapsulation boundaries, with the addition of
` two more hyphens at the end of the line:
`
` ‐‐gc0y0pkb9ex‐‐
`
` There is room for additional information before the first
` encapsulation boundary and following the final boundary.
` These areas are often blank. Anything appearing before the
` first or after the last boundary is ignored.
`
` As a simple example, the following multipart message has two
` parts, both plain text, one explicitly typed and one
` implicitly typed:
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` From: Nathaniel Borenstein <nsb@bellcore.com>
` To: Ned Freed <ned@innosoft.com>
` Subject: Sample message
` MIME‐Version: 1.0
` Content‐type: multipart/mixed;
` boundary="simple boundary"
`
` This is the preamble. It is to be ignored, though it is
` a handy place for mail composers to include an
` explanatory note to non‐MIME compliant readers.
` ‐‐simple boundary
`
` This is implicitly typed plain ASCII text.
` ‐‐simple boundary
` Content‐type: text/plain; charset=us‐ascii
`
` This is explicitly typed plain ASCII text. It DOES end
` with a line break.
` ‐‐simple boundary‐‐
` This is the epilogue. It is also to be ignored.
`
` The use of a Content‐Type of multipart in a body part within
` another multipart entity is explicitly allowed. In such
` cases, care must be taken to ensure that each nested multipart
` entity uses a different boundary delimiter.
`
` The use of the multipart Content‐Type with only a single body
` part may be useful in certain contexts, and is explicitly
` permitted.
`
` Multipart/Mixed
` indicates multiple independent body parts to be viewed
` serially.
`
` Multipart/Alternative
` is syntactically identical to Multipart/Mixed. Each part
` is an "alternative" version of the same information.
` Mail readers should recognize that the content of the
` parts is interchangeable. The mail reader should either
` choose the "best" type based on the user's environment
` and preferences, or offer the user the available
` alternatives. Generally, choosing the best type means
` displaying only the last part that can be displayed.
` This may be used, for example, to send mail in a fancy
` text format in such a way that it can easily be displayed
` anywhere:
`
` From: Nathaniel Borenstein <nsb@bellcore.com>
` To: Ned Freed <ned@innosoft.com>
` Subject: Formatted text mail
` MIME‐Version: 1.0
` Content‐Type: multipart/alternative;
` boundary=boundary42
`
` ‐‐boundary42
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` Content‐Type: text/plain; charset=us‐ascii
`
` ... plain text version of message goes here ...
`
` ‐‐boundary42
` Content‐Type: text/richtext
`
` ... richtext version of same message goes here...
` ‐‐boundary42
` Content‐Type: text/x‐whatever
`
` ... fanciest formatted version of same message goes
` here
` ...
` ‐‐boundary42‐‐
`
` In this example, users whose mail system understood
` text/x‐whatever format would see only the fancy version,
` while other users would see only the richtext or plain
` text version, depending on the capabilities of their
` system.
`
` Some mail reading programs that recognize more than one
` of the formats will offer the user a choice of which
` format to view. This makes sense if mail includes both a
` nicely formatted image version and an easily edited text
` version. Multiple versions of the same data should not
` be not be automatically shown. The user should wither be
` shown the last recognized version or explicitly given the
` choice.
`
` Multipart/Parallel
` is syntactically identical to Multipart/Mixed. However,
` in a parallel body, all the body parts are intended to be
` presented simultaneously on hardware and software that
` are capable of doing so. Composing agents should be
` aware that many mail readers will lack this capability
` and will show the parts serially in any event.
`
` Multipart/Parallel is likely be used for multimedia
` messages that combine such message types as text, audio
` and/or video.
`
` Multipart/Digest
` Indicates that each of the body parts is an RFC 822 mail
` message. Multipart/Digest is syntactically identical to
` Multipart/Mixed, except that the default Content‐Type
` value for a body part is changed from Text/Plain to
` Message/Rfc822.
`
` Text
` The text Content‐Type is for sending material that is
` principally textual in form. It is the default Content‐Type.
` The character set of the text can be indicated by using the
` Charset parameter. The default Content‐Type for Internet mail
` is
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` Content‐Type: text/plain; Charset=US‐ASCII.
`
` The value of the Charset parameter is not case sensitive.
` Allowable values are US‐ASCII, ISO‐8859‐1, ISO‐8859‐2, ... and
` ISO8859‐9. The default value for Charset is US‐ASCII.
`
` Text/Plain
` indicates plain (unformatted) text. No special software
` is required to get the full meaning of the text, aside
` from support for the indicated character set. Other
` subtypes should be used for enriched text in forms where
` application software may enhance the appearance of the
` text, but such software must not be required in order to
` get the general idea of the content. Possible future
` subtypes include any readable word processor format.
`
` Text/Richtext
` indicates a simple portable word processing format that
` is defined by the MIME standard. It is a very small
` subset of SGML. Mail readers that implement Richtext may
` implement only a subset of it.
`
` When a mail composing program is given a file in a word
` processing format and there is no standardized subtype
` for that format, then the program may reformat the file
` into richtext format which will preserve more of the
` original formatting information than reformatting the
` file to plain ASCII.
`
` Video
` indicates that the body contains a time‐varying‐picture image,
` possibly with color and coordinated sound. The term Video is
` used very generically and does not refer to any particular
` technology or format. It is not meant to preclude subtypes
` such as animated drawings encoded compactly.
`
` Video/Mpeg
` indicates video coded according to the MPEG standard.
`
` X‐TypeName
` This is any type name that begins with X‐. A Content‐Type
` value beginning with X‐ is a private value, to be used by
` consenting mail systems by mutual agreement. The standard
` specifies no subtypes.
`
`No type may be specified without a subtype.
`
`The standard allows the use of additional sub‐types without having to
`change the standard. However, it is important to insure that sub‐types
`used by different user communities of MIME do not conflict. It would be
`confusing if ContentType: application/foobar meant two different things.
`The standard specifies two mechanisms for defining new Content‐Type
`subtypes:
`
`1. Private values (starting with X‐) may be defined between cooperating
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`
` mail composing and reading programs without outside registration.
` Use of this mechanism requires knowing that the reader of the message
` will not mistake the content type for something other than originally
` intended.
`
`2. New standard values must be registered with IANA. Where intended for
` public use, the formats they refer to must also be defined by a
` published specification.
`
`Messages that do not have a Content‐Type field in their header are
`displayed by user agents as if
` Content‐Type: Text/plain; Charset=US‐ASCII
`had been specified.
`
`When a mail reader finds mail with an unknown Content‐Type value, it
`will generally treat it as equivalent to application/octet‐stream.
`
`The Content‐Transfer‐Encoding Header Field
`
`Many Content‐Types that could usefully be transported by e‐mail are
`represented, in their "natural" format, as 8‐bit character or binary
`data. Such data cannot be transmitted over some transport protocols.
`For example, SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is an Internet standard
`for transporting e‐mail defined by a document called RFC 821) restricts
`mail messages to 7‐bit ASCII data with lines no longer than 1000
`characters.
`
`MIME provides two mechanisms for re‐encoding such data into a 7‐bit
`short‐line format. The Content‐Transfer‐Encoding header field indicates
`the mechanism used to perform such an encoding.
`
`The possible values for the Content‐Transfer‐Encoding field are:
`
` * BASE64
` * QUOTED‐PRINTABLE
` * 8BIT
` * 7BIT
` * BINARY
` * x‐EncodingName
`
`These values are not case sensitive: Base64, BASE64 and bAsE64 are all
`equivalent. An encoding type of 7BIT requires that the body is already
`in a 7‐bit mail‐ready representation. That is the default value:
`Content‐Transfer‐Encoding: 7BIT is assumed if the
`Content‐Transfer‐Encoding header field is not present.
`
`Both BASE64 and the QUOTED‐PRINTABLE imply an encoding that consists of
`lines no longer than 76 ASCII characters. In other respects the two
`encoding schemes are very different.
`
`The encoding scheme implied by QUOTED‐PRINTABLE is most appropriate for
`data that consists primarily of printable ASCII characters. Using this
`encoding method, printable ASCII characters are represented as
`themselves. The equals sign (=) serves as an escape character. Any
`character that is not a printable or white space ASCII character is
`represented as an equals sign followed by two hexadecimal digits. An
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`equals sign in the message is also represented in this way. Lines that
`are longer than 76 characters are cut off after the 75th character and
`the line ends with an equals sign.
`
`The advantages of using the QUOTED‐PRINTABLE encoding for message that
`are mostly printable ASCII characters are:
`
` * Few additional characters are required.
`
` * The message can be read by human beings who to not have a MIME
` aware mail reading program.
`
`As an example, here is an EDI interchange in QUOTED‐PRINTABLE
`encoding:
`
` ISA*00* *00* *01*987654321 *12*8005551234 *91
`0=
` 607*0111*U*00200*110000777*0*T*>
` GS*PO*987654321*8005551234*920501*2032*7721*X*002003
` ST*850*000000001
` BEG*00*NE*MS1112**920501**CONTRACT#
` REF*IT*8128827763
` N1*ST*MAVERICK SYSTEMS
` N3*3312 NEW HAMPSHIRE STREET
` N4*SAN JOSE*CA*94811
` PO1*1*25*EA***VC*TP8MM*CB*TAPE8MM
` PO1*2*30*EA***VC*TP1/4*CB*TAPE1/4INCH
` PO1*3*125*EA***VC*DSK31/2*CB*DISK35
` CTT*3
` SE*11*000000001
` GE*1*7721
` IEA*1*110000777
`
`Except for the ISA segment having been wrapped onto two lines, the
`QUOTED‐PRINTABLE encoding of the interchange is identical to its 7BIT
`representation.
`
`The BASE64 encoding mechanism is well suited for representing binary
`files. It represents any sequence of three bytes as four printable
`ASCII characters. The same interchange as shown above but using the
`BASE64 encoding would look like:
`
`SVNBKjAwKiAgICAgICAgICAqMDAqICAgICAgICAgICowMSo5ODc2NTQzMjEgICAgICAqMTIq
`ODAwNTU1MTIzNCAgICAgKjkxMDYwNyowMTExKlUqMDAyMDAqMTEwMDAwNzc3KjAqVCo+CkdT
`KlBPKjk4NzY1NDMyMSo4MDA1NTUxMjM0KjkyMDUwMSoyMDMyKjc3MjEqWCowMDIwMDMKU1Qq
`ODUwKjAwMDAwMDAwMQpCRUcqMDAqTkUqTVMxMTEyKio5MjA1MDEqKkNPTlRSQUNUIwpSRUYq
`SVQqODEyODgyNzc2MwpOMSpTVCpNQVZFUklDSyBTWVNURU1TCk4zKjMzMTIgTkVXIEhBTVBT
`SElSRSBTVFJFRVQKTjQqU0FOIEpPU0UqQ0EqOTQ4MTEKUE8xKjEqMjUqRUEqKipWQypUUDhN
`TSpDQipUQVBFOE1NClBPMSoyKjMwKkVBKioqVkMqVFAxLzQqQ0IqVEFQRTEvNElOQ0gKUE8x
`KjMqMTI1KkVBKioqVkMqRFNLMzEvMipDQipESVNLMzUKQ1RUKjMKU0UqMTEqMDAwMDAwMDAx
`CkdFKjEqNzcyMQpJRUEqMSoxMTAwMDA3NzcK
`
`BASE64 bears some resemblance to uuencode in both appearance and
`function. However, uuencode uses characters that may not be processed
`properly by an EBCDIC gateway.
`
`5/6/2015
`
`www.nada.kth se/sunet-mime/ftp/mime-overview-Mark-Grand.txt
`
`http://www.nada kth.se/sunet-mime/ftp/mime-overview-Mark-Grand.txt
`
`12/15
`
`Page 12 of 15
`
`
`
`The values 8bit, 7bit and binary all imply that no encoding has been
`performed. They are useful to indicate of the kind of data contained in
`the object, and therefore of the kind of encoding that might need to be
`performed for transmission in a given transport system. 7bit means
`that the data is all represented as short lines of ASCII data. 8bit
`means that the lines are short, but there may be non‐ASCII characters.
`Binary means that not only may non‐ASCII characters be present, but also
`that the lines are not necessarily short enough for SMTP transport.
`
`The difference between 8bit and binary is that binary does not require
`adherence to any limi