IPR No.: IPR2016-00500
`
`IPR No.: IPR2016-00500
`Patent No. 7,864,163
`Patent No. 7,864,163
`
`EXHIBIT 1003
`
`EXHIBIT 1003
`
`

`

`___
`
`· 12_· ---
`
`MULTIMEDIA USER INTERFACE DESIGN
`
`Alistair Sutcliffe
`University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology
`
`246
`. .. . ...........
`.........
`.....
`. ....
`.. . ......
`Introduction
`252
`Media Selection .....................................
`.. ...
`...........
`. ...
`. ..... 246
`Definitions and Terminology
`254
`.......
`Aesthetics and Attractiveness
`...
`...........
`Cognitive Background
`.................................
`24 7
`. . .. 255
`....
`Image and Identity .......
`. ..........
`. . . ......
`247
`Pe:-ception and Comprehension
`........................
`. ... 256
`Navigation and Control ............................
`247
`Selective Attention .....................................
`.. .... 257
`. ...
`Media Integration and Design for Attention ....
`. . . ... 248
`Learning and Memorization
`.. ....
`. . ...
`......
`.... 259
`. . ...
`Still Image Media .......
`...
`.............
`. ...
`Design Process .........................................
`249
`.. . ...... 259
`Moving Image Media ................
`. . ......
`249
`Users. Requirements, and Domains .....................
`260
`Linguistic Media (Text and Speech) ...
`. ...............
`Information Analysis ...................................
`250 Conclusions
`............................................
`260
`Media Selection and Combination
`..............
`251 References
`....................
`.. ............
`.. 261
`
`...
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`. .....
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`...
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`. ....
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`.. ......
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`245
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`Ex_1003: Page 1 of 19
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`

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`246
`
`• SUTCLIFFE
`
`INTRODUCTION
`
`Design of multimedia interfaces currently leaves a lot to be de(cid:173)
`technologies,
`it is the fascina(cid:173)
`sired. As with many emerging
`tion with new devices, functions, and forms of interaction that
`has motivated design rather than ease of use, or even utility
`of practical applications. Poor usability limits the effectiveness
`of multimedia products
`that might look good, but do not de(cid:173)
`liver effective use (Scaife, Rogers , Aldrich, & Davies , 1997). The
`multimedia market has progressed beyond the initial hype, and
`customers are looking for well-designed . effective, and mature
`products.
`are
`of multimedia
`characteristics
`The distinguishing
`information -intensive applications
`that have a complex design
`space for presenting
`information
`to people. Design , therefore,
`has to start by modeling information requirements. This chapter
`describes a design process that starts with an information anal(cid:173)
`ysis. then progresses to deal with issues of media selection and
`integration. The background
`to the method and its evolution
`with experience can be found in several publications (Faraday &
`Sutcliffe. 1996 , 1997b , 1998b ; Sutcliffe & Faraday, 1994). A more
`detailed description
`is given in Sutcliffe (2002). The time-to(cid:173)
`market pressure gives little incentive
`for design; so at first
`reading , a systematic approach may seem to be counter to the
`commercial drivers of development. However, I would argue
`that if multimedia design does not adopt a usability engineering
`approach. it will fail to deliver effective and usable products.
`Multimedia applications have significant markets in educa(cid:173)
`tion and
`training , although dialogue
`in many systems
`is
`restricted
`to drill-and-quiz interaction and simple navigation.
`This approach, however,
`is oversimplified: For training and
`education , interactive simulations, and microworlds are more
`effective (Rogers & Scaife, 1998). Multimedia has been used ex(cid:173)
`tensively in task -based applications in process control and safety
`critical systems (Alty, 1991; Hollan. Hutchins. & Weitzman.
`1984); however , most transaction processing applications are
`currently treated as standard interfaces rather than multimedia(cid:173)
`based designs. With the advent of the web and e-commerce .
`this view may change.
`Design issues for multimedia user interfaces expand conYen(cid:173)
`tional definitions of usability (e.g., ISO 92-H part 11) into five
`components:
`
`• Operational usability
`sense of usabil(cid:173)
`is the conventional
`ity that concerns design of graphical user
`interface
`fea(cid:173)
`tures such as menus , icons , metaphors. and navigation
`in
`hypermedia.
`• Information delivery is a prime concern for multimedia or
`any information-intensive
`application, and raises issues of
`media selection, integration, and design for attention.
`• Learning: Training and education are both important mar(cid:173)
`kets for multimedia , and hence learnability of the product
`and its content are key quality attributes. However . design
`of educational
`technology
`is a complex subject in its own
`right , and multimedia is only one part of the design problem
`(see chapter 42, Quintana et al., which deals with educational
`software des ign).
`
`• Utility: In some applications , this will be the functionality that
`supports
`the user 's task ; in others, information delivery and
`learning will represent
`the value perceived by the user.
`• Aesthetic appeal: The attractiveness of multipledia is now a
`key factor , especially for Web sites. Multimedia interfaces have
`to attract users and motivate them , as well as being easy to
`use and learn.
`
`Multimedia design involves several specialisms that are techni(cid:173)
`cal subjects in their own right. For instance, design of text is
`the science (or art) of calligraphy that has developed new fonts
`over many years; visualization design encompasses
`the creation
`of images, either drawn or captured as photographs
`. Design of
`moving images , cartoons, video, and film are further specializa(cid:173)
`tions, as are musical composition and design of sound effects.
`Multimedia design lies on an interesti ng cultural boundary be(cid:173)
`tween the creative artistic community and science-based engi(cid:173)
`neering. One implication of this cultural collision ( or rather, one
`hopes , synthesis) is that space p recludes "within media " design
`(i.e ., guidelines for design of one particular medium) being dealt
`with in depth in this chapter. Successful multimedia design of(cid:173)
`ten requires teams of specialists who contribute from their own
`skill sets (Kristof & Satran, 1995 ; Mullet & Sano, 1995) .
`
`DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY
`
`interface
`the graphical user
`Multimedia essentially extends
`informa(cid:173)
`paradigm by providing a richer means of representing
`tion for the user by use of image, video , sound , and speech. Some
`views of what constitutes multimedia can be found in Bernsen
`(1994) . who proposed a taxonomy of analogue versus discrete
`media. which he calls modalities, as well as visual , audio, and
`tactile dimensions. Heller and Martin (1995) take a more con(cid:173)
`ventional view of classifying image. text , video , and graphics for
`educational purposes. The following definitions broadly follow
`those in the ISO standard 14915 on Multimedia User Interface
`Design (ISO. 1998) . The starting point is to ask about the differ(cid:173)
`ence between what is perceived by someone and what is stored
`on a machine.
`Communication concepts
`into:
`
`in multimedia can be separated
`
`• ,lfessage: The content of communication between a sender
`and receiver.
`• Medium (plural media): The means by which that content
`is delivered. Note that this is how the message is represented
`rather than the technology for storing or delivering a message .
`There is a distinction between perceived media and physical
`media , such as CD-ROM, hard disk . etc.
`• Modality: The sense by which a message is sent or received
`by people or machines. This refers to the senses of vision ,
`hearing , touch , smell, and taste.
`
`A message is conveyed by a medium ano received through a
`modality . A modality is the sensory channel that we use to send
`and rece ive messages to and from the world, essentially our
`
`Ex_1003: Page 2 of 19
`
`

`

`senses. Two principal modalities are used in human-computer
`communication :
`
`• Vision : All information received through our eyes , including
`text and image-based media.
`• Hearing : All information received through our ears, as sound ,
`music , and speech .
`
`In the future , as multimedia converges with virtual reality,
`we will use other modalities more frequently : haptic (sense
`of touch) , kinaesthetic
`(sense of body posture and balance) ,
`gustation
`(taste) , and olfaction
`(smell) . These
`issues are
`dealt with in chapter 14, Multimodal Interfaces (Oviatt) , and
`chapter 31, Virtual Environments (Stanney) .
`Defining a medium is not simple because it depends on how
`it was captured in the first place , how it was designed , and how
`it has been stored. For example , a photograph can be taken on
`film , developed , and then scanned into a computer as a digitized
`image . The same image may have been captured directly by a
`digital camera and sent to a computer as an e-mail file. At the
`physical level , media may be stored by different techniques .
`Physical media storage has usability implications
`for the
`quality of image and response time in networked multimedia .
`A screen image with 640 x 480 VGA resolution using 24 bits
`per pixel for good color coding gives 921 .600 bytes ; so, at
`30 frames/s , 1 s needs around 25 megabytes of memor y or disk
`space. Compression algorithms (e.g., MPEG [:vloving Pictures
`Expert Group]) reduce this by a factor of 10. Even so . storing
`more than a few minutes of moving image consumes megabytes.
`The usabilitytrade-offis between the size of the display footprint
`(i.e. , window size) , the resolution measured in dots per inch.
`and the frame rate . The ideal might be full screen high resolu(cid:173)
`tion (600 dpi) at 30 frames/s ; with current technology , a 10-cm
`window at 300 dpi and 15 frames/s is more realistic. Physical
`image media constraints become more important on networks ,
`when bandwidth will limit the desired display quality . Sound ,
`in comparison , is Jess of a problem . Storage demands depend
`on the fidelity required for replay . Full stereo with a complete
`range of harmonic frequencies only consumes 100 kilobytes for
`5 mins , so there are few technology constraints on delivery of
`high-quality audio.
`
`COGNITIVE BACKGROUND
`
`The purpose of this section is to give a brief overview of cogni(cid:173)
`tive psychology as it affects multimedia design . More details can
`be found in section I, Humans in Human-Computer
`Interaction.
`
`Perception and Comprehension
`
`Our eyes scan images in a series of rapid jumps called saccades
`interleaved with fixations in which the eye dwells on a par(cid:173)
`ticular area . Fixations allow image detail to be inspected . so
`eye tracking gives some impression of the detail inspected
`in
`images. Generally , our eyes are drawn to moving shapes , then
`complex , d.iffcrem, and colorful objcct:s. Visual compn ':hcnsion
`
`12. Multimedia User Interface Design
`
`• 24 7
`
`can be summar ized as "what you see depends on what you look
`at and what you know. "
`Multimedia designers can influence what users look at by
`controlling attention with display techniques , such as use of
`movement , highlighting, and salient icons. However, designers
`should be aware that the information people assimilate from
`an image also depends on their inte rnal motivation , what they
`want to find, and how well they know the domain (Treisman ,
`1988) . A novice will not see interesting plant species in a trop(cid:173)
`ical jungle , whereas a trained botanist will . Selection of visual
`content therefore has to take the user 's knowledge and task into
`account . Because the visual sense receives information continu (cid:173)
`ously, it gets overwritten
`in working memory (Baddeley , 1986).
`This means that memorization of visually transmitted
`informa (cid:173)
`tion is not always effective unless users are given time to view
`and comprehend
`images. Furthermore, users only extract very
`high-level or gist (general sense) information from moving im(cid:173)
`ages . Visual information has to be understood by using mem(cid:173)
`ory. In realistic images, this process is automatic ; however , with
`nonrealistic images, we have to think carefully about the mean(cid:173)
`ing, for example to interpret a diagram . Although extraction of
`information from images is rapid , it does vary according to the
`complexity of the image and how much we know about the
`domain. Sound is a transient medium, so unless it is processed
`quickly, the message can be lost. Even though people are re(cid:173)
`markably effective at comprehending
`spoken language and can
`interpret other sounds quickly , the audio medium is prone to
`interference because other sounds can compete with the princi(cid:173)
`pal message. Because sound is transient, information in speech
`will not be assimilated in detail, and so only the gist will be
`memorized (Gardiner & Christie , 1987).
`
`Selective Attention
`
`to a limited number of inputs at once .
`We can only attend
`Although people are remarkably good at integrating information
`received by different senses (e.g. , watching a film and listening
`to the sound track) , there are limits determined by the psy(cid:173)
`chology of human information processing (Wickens , Sandry, &
`Vidulich , 1983) . Our attention
`is selective and closely related
`to perception;
`for instance, we can overhear a conversation
`in a room with many people speaking (the cocktail party
`effect) . Furthermore , selective attention differs between
`indi(cid:173)
`viduals and can be improved by learning factors: for example ,
`a conductor can distinguish the different instruments
`in an or(cid:173)
`chestra, whereas a typical listener cannot. However , all users
`have cognitive resource limitations , which means that informa(cid:173)
`tion delivered on different modalities (e .g., by vision and sound )
`has to compete for the same resource. For instance , speech and
`printed text both require a language understanding
`resource ,
`whereas video and a still image use image interpretation
`re(cid:173)
`sources . Cognitive models of information processing architec(cid:173)
`tures (e.g., Interacting Cognitive Subsystems: Barnard , 1985)
`can show that certain media combinations and media design
`will not result in effective comprehension , because they com(cid:173)
`pete for the same cognitive resources , thus creating a processing
`bott leneck . We have
`two main perceptual channels for receiving
`
`Ex_1003: Page 3 of 19
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`

`

`248
`
`• SUTCLIFFE
`
`input
`modalities
`
`eye__.
`
`hand
`
`ear
`
`working
`memory
`
`output
`modalities
`
`Motor
`processor
`5
`
`Bottlenecks
`I. Capacity overflow: information overload
`2. Integration: common message?
`3. Contention: conflicting channels
`4. Comprehension
`5. Multi-tasking input/output
`
`information
`FIGURE l 2 . l. Approximate model of human
`processing using a human as computer system analogy, based
`on the Model Human Processor (Card et al., l 983). For more
`on cognitive models, see chapter 2 (Proctor and Vu) and
`chapter 5 (Byrne). STM = short-term memory .
`
`information: vision and hearing: information going into these
`channels has to be comprehended before it can be used. In(cid:173)
`formation can be received in a language-based form either as
`speech or as written text viewed in an image . All such input
`competes for language understanding
`resources, hence mak(cid:173)
`ing sense of speech and reading text concurrently
`is difficult
`(Barnard . 1985). Figure 12.1 shows the cognitive architecture
`of human information processing and resource limitations that
`lead to multimedia usability problems.
`Capacity overflow (1) may happen when too much infor(cid:173)
`mation is presented
`in a short period, swamping the user 's
`limited working memory and cognitive processor 's capability
`to comprehend,
`chunk . and then memorize or use the in(cid:173)
`formation. The connotation
`is to give users control over the
`(2) arise
`pace of information delivery. Integration problems
`when the message on two media is different . making integra(cid:173)
`tion in working memory difficult ; this leads to the thematic
`congruence principle. Contention problems (3) are caused by
`conflicting attention between dynamic media , and when two
`inputs compete for the same cognitive resources (e.g. , speech
`and text require language understanding). Comprehension
`(4)
`is related to congruence ; we understand
`the world by making
`sense of it with our existing long-term memory. Consequently,
`if multimedia material is unfamiliar, we cannot make sense
`of it . Finally, multitasking
`(5) makes further demands on
`our cognitive processing , so we will experience difficulty in
`attending to multimedia input when performing output tasks.
`Making a theme in a multimedia presentation clear involves
`directing
`the user 's reading and viewing sequence across
`different media segments. Video and speech are processed
`in sequence, and text enforces a serial reading order by the
`syntactic convention of language; however, viewing
`image
`
`media is less predictable, because it depends on the size and
`complexity of the image, the user's knowledge of the contents,
`task and motivation (Norman & Shallice, 1986), and designed
`effects for salience. Attention-directing effects can increase the
`probability that the user will attend to an image component
`,
`although no guarantee can be given that a component will be
`perceived or understood.
`
`Learning and Memorization
`
`Learning is the prime objective in tutorial multimedia. How(cid:173)
`ever, the type of learning can be either skill training, in which
`case conducting an operational task efficiently and without er(cid:173)
`rors is the aim, or a deeper understanding of the knowledge
`may be required. In both cases, the objective is to create a rich
`memory schema that can be accessed easily in the future. We
`learn more effectively by active problem solving or learning by
`doing. This approach is at the heart of constructivist
`learning
`theory (Papert , 1980), which has connotations for tutorial mul(cid:173)
`timedia. Interactive microworlds in which users learn by inter(cid:173)
`acting with simulations, or constructing and testing the simula(cid:173)
`tion, give a more vivid experience
`that forms better memories
`(Rogers & Scaife, 1998). Multiple viewpoints help to develop
`rich schemata by presenting different aspects of the same prob(cid:173)
`lem, so the whole concept can be integrated from its parts. An
`example might be to explain the structure of an engine, then
`how it operates , and finally display a causal model of why it
`works. Schema integration during memorization fits the sepa(cid:173)
`rate viewpoints together.
`The implications from psychology are summarized in the
`form of multimedia design principles that amplify and extend
`those proposed for general UI design (e.g., ISO 9241 part IO
`[ISO, 1997]). The principles are high-level concepts
`that are
`useful for general guidance, but they have to be interpreted
`in
`a context to give more specific advice.
`
`in different
`• Thematic congruence: Messages presented
`media should be linked together
`to form a coherent whole.
`This helps comprehension as the different parts of the message
`make sense by fitting together. Congruence
`is partly a matter
`of designing the content so it follows a logical theme (e .g., the
`script or story line makes sense and does not assume too much
`about the user's domain knowledge) and partly a matter of atten(cid:173)
`tional design to help the user follow the message thread across
`different media.
`loading: Messages presented in
`• Manageable information
`multimedia should be delivered at a pace that is either under the
`user 's control or at a rate that allows for effective assimilation
`of information without causing fatigue. The rate of information
`delivery depends on the quantity and complexity of information
`in the message , the effectiveness of the design in helping the
`user extract the message from the media , and the user's domain
`knowledge and motivation. Some ways of reducing information
`overload are to avoid excessive use of concurrent dynamic me(cid:173)
`dia and give the user time to assimilate complex messages.
`• Ensure compatibility with the user's understanding: Me(cid:173)
`dia should be selected that convey the content
`in a manner
`
`Ex_1003: Page 4 of 19
`
`

`

`compatible with the user's existing knowledge (e.g., the radi(cid:173)
`ation symbol and road sign icons are used to convey hazards
`and dangers to users who have the appropriate knowledge and
`cultural background). The user's ability to understand
`the mes(cid:173)
`sage is important for designed image media (diagrams, graphs)
`when interpretation
`is dependent on the user 's knowledge and
`background.
`• Complementary viewpoints: Similar aspects of the same
`subject matter should be presented on different media to cre(cid:173)
`ate an integrated whole. Showing different aspects of the same
`object (e.g. , picture and design diagram of a ship) can help
`memorization by developing richer schema and better memory
`cues.
`• Consistency helps users learn an interface by making the
`controls , command names, and layout follow a familiar pattern.
`People recognize patterns automatically, so operating
`the in(cid:173)
`terface becomes an automatic skill. Consistent use of media to
`deliver messages of a specific type can help by cueing users
`with what to expect.
`• Reinforce messages: Redundant communication of the
`same message on different media can help learning. Presenta(cid:173)
`tion of the same or similar aspects of a message helps memoriza(cid:173)
`tion by the frequency effect. Exposing users to the same thing
`in a different modality also promotes rich memory cues.
`
`DESIGN PROCESS
`
`Multimedia design has to address the problems inherent in the
`design of any user interface , viz. defining user requirements,
`tasks , and dialogue design ; however, there are three issues that
`concern multimedia specifically :
`
`• Matching the media to the message , by selecting and integrat(cid:173)
`ing media so the user comprehends
`the information content
`effectively.
`• Managing users' attention so key items in the content are
`noticed and understood, and the user follows the message
`thread across several media.
`• Navigation and control so the user can access , play, and in(cid:173)
`teract with media in a flexible and predictable manner.
`
`Figure 12.2 gives an overview of the design process that ad(cid:173)
`dresses these issues.
`The method starts with requirements and information analy(cid:173)
`sis to establish the necessary content and communication goals
`of the application. It then progresses to domain and user charac(cid:173)
`teristic analysis to establish a profile of the user and the system
`environment. The output from these stages feeds into media se(cid:173)
`lection and integration that match the logical specification of the
`content
`to available media resources. Design then progresses
`to thematic integration of the user 's reading/viewing sequence
`and dialogue design. The method can be tailored to fit within
`different development approaches. For instance, in rapid ap(cid:173)
`plications development, storyboards, prototypes, and iterative
`build-and-evaluate cycles would be used. On the other hand,
`in a more systematic, software engineering approach, more de(cid:173)
`tallect specifications anct scripts ww be proctucect before ctesign
`
`12. Multimedia User Interface Design
`
`• 249
`
`user
`requirements
`
`Information types
`
`Presentation
`guidelines
`
`product
`implementation
`
`FIGURE l 2.2. Overview of the multimedia
`expressed as a data flow diagram .
`
`design process
`
`is described as a se(cid:173)
`the process
`commences. Even though
`quence, in practice the stages are interleaved and iterated ; how(cid:173)
`ever, requirements,
`information modeling , and media selection
`should be conducted, even if they are not complete, before the
`media and attentional design stages commence.
`Design approaches
`in multimedia tend to be interactive and
`user-centered. Storyboatds are a well -known means of informal
`modeling in multimedia design (Nielsen, 1995; Sutcliffe , 1999).
`Originating from animation and cartoon design, storyboards are
`a set of images that represent key steps in a design. Translated
`to software. storyboards depict key stages in interaction and
`are used for conducting walkthroughs
`to explain what happens
`at each stage. Allowing the users to edit storyboards and giv(cid:173)
`ing them a construction kit to build their own encourages ac(cid:173)
`tiYe participation. Storyboards are followed by building concept
`demonstrators using multimedia authoring
`tools (e.g. , Macro(cid:173)
`media Director , Toolbook) to rapidly develop early prototypes .
`Concept demonstrators are active simulations that follow a sce(cid:173)
`nario script of interaction ; departure from the preset sequence
`is not allowed. Several variations can be run to support com(cid:173)
`parison; however, the user experience
`is passive. In contrast ,
`users can test interactive prototypes by running different com(cid:173)
`mands or functions. The degree of interactivity depends on the
`implementation cost that increases as prototypes converge with
`a fully functional product .
`
`Users, Requirements, and Domains
`
`The starting point for multimedia , as in all applications , is
`requirements analysis. The difference
`in multimedia
`lies in
`the greater emphasis on information requirements. A variety
`of analytic approaches can be adopted, such as task analysis
`
`Ex_1003: Page 5 of 19
`
`

`

`250
`
`• SUTCLIFFE
`
`(see chapter 48, Redish and Wixon) , contextual design
`(chapter 49, Holtzblatt), or scenario analysis (chapter 53 , Rosson
`and Carroll). Requirements are listed and categorized into infor(cid:173)
`mation, task-related, and nonfunctional classes. These will be
`expanded in subsequent analyses.
`It is important to get a profile of the target user population
`to guide media selection . There are three motivations for user
`analysis:
`
`• Choice of modalities: This is not only important for people
`with disabilities , but also for user preferences. Some people
`prefer verbal-linguistic material over image.
`• Tuning the content presented
`to the level of users ' existing
`knowledge. This is particularly important for training anded(cid:173)
`ucational applications .
`• Capturing the users' experience of multimedia and other
`computer systems.
`
`Acquiring information about the level of experience possessed
`by the potential user population is important for customization.
`User profiles are used to design training applications to ensure
`that the right level of tutorial support is provided . and to assess
`the users ' domain knowledge so that appropriate media can be
`selected . This is particularly important when symbols, designed
`images , and diagrammatic notations may be involved . The role
`and background of users will have an important bearing on
`design . For example. marketing applications will need simple ,
`focused content and more aesthetic design. whereas tutorial sys(cid:173)
`tems need to deliver detailed content . Information kiosk applica(cid:173)
`tions need to provide information , as do task-based applications .
`but decision support and persuasive systems (Fogg. 1998: see
`also, Fogg, chapter 17) also need to ensure users comprehend
`and are convinced by messages. Domain knowledge, including
`use of conventions , symbols , and terminology in the domain .
`is important because less experienced users will require more
`complete information to be presented.
`The context and environment of a system will also have an
`important bearing on design. For example , tourist information
`systems in outdoor public areas will experience a wide range
`of lighting conditions , which can make image and text hard to
`read . High levels of ambient noise in public places or factory
`floors can make audio and speech useless. Hence, it is impor(cid:173)
`tant to gather information on the location of use (office, fac(cid:173)
`tory floor, public/private space , hazardous locations) , pertinent
`environmental variables (ambient light , noise levels. temper(cid:173)
`ature) , usage conditions (single user , shared use . broadcast) ,
`and expected range of locations (countries , languages . and cul(cid:173)
`tures) . Choice of language , icon conventions , interpretation of
`diagrams and choice of content all have a bearing on design of
`international user interfaces .
`As well as gathering general information about the sys(cid:173)
`tem 's context of use , domain modeling can prove useful
`for creating
`the system metaphor. A sketch of the user 's
`workplace-recording
`spatial layout of artefacts , documents ,
`and information - can be translated
`into a virtual world to
`help users navigate to the information and services they need.
`Structural metaphors for organizing information and operational
`metaphors for controls and devices have their origins in domain
`
`analysis. Domain models are recorded as sketches of the work
`environment showing
`the layout and location of significant
`objects and artefacts, accompanied by lists of environmental
`factors.
`
`Information Analysis
`
`Information types are amodal, conceptual descriptions of infor(cid:173)
`mation components
`that elaborate the content definition. Infor(cid:173)
`mation types specify the message to be delivered in a multimedia
`application and are operated on by mapping rules to select ap(cid:173)
`propriate media resources. The following definitions are based
`on the Task-based Information Analysis Method (Sutcliffe , 1997)
`and ISO 14915 , part 3 OSO, 2000).
`in which
`The information types are used in walkthroughs,
`the analyst progresses through the task/scenario/use case ask(cid:173)
`ing questions about information needs. This can be integrated
`with data modeling (or object/class modeling), so that the in(cid:173)
`formation in objects and their attributes can be categorized by
`the following types , using the decision tree in Fig. 12.3. The
`first question is whether information represents concrete facts
`about the real world or more abstract , conceptual information;
`this is followed by questions about the information that relates
`to change in the world or describes permanent states. Finally,
`the decision tree gives a set of ontological categories to classify
`information that expands on type definitions commonly found
`in software engineering specifications. More complex ontolo(cid:173)
`gies are available (Arens , Hovy, & VanMulken , 1993 ; Mann &
`Thompson , 1988) , so the classification presented
`in Fig. 12.3
`is a compromise between complexity and ease of use . A finer
`grained classification enables more finely tuned media selection
`decisions, but at the cost of more analysis effort.
`Components are classified by walking through the decision
`tree using the definitions and the following questions :
`
`in the component physical or
`
`• Is the information contained
`conceptual?
`• Is the information static or dynamic (i.e., does it relate to
`change or not?) .
`• Which type in the terminal branch of the tree does the infor(cid:173)
`mation component belong to?
`
`to note that one component may be classified
`It is important
`with more than one type ; for instance, instructions on how to
`get to the railway station may contain procedural information
`(the instructions <turn left , straight ahead , etc.>) , and spa(cid:173)
`tial or descriptive information (the station is in the corner of
`the square, painted blue). The information types are tools for
`thought , which can be used either to classify specifications of
`content or to consider what content may be necessary. To illus(cid:173)
`trate, for the task "navigate to the railway station, " the content
`may be minimally specified as "instmctions how to get there ;
`in which case the information types prompt questions in the
`form "what sort of information does the user need to fulfil the
`task/user goal?" Alternatively, the content may be specified
`as a scenario narrative of directions , waymarks to recognize ,
`and description of the target. In this case , the types classify
`
`Ex_1003: Page 6 of 19
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`l 2. Multimedia User Interface Design
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`• 251
`
`static
`
`physical
`
`conceptual
`
`static
`
`dynamic
`
`2
`
`states
`
`person sleeping
`
`attributes,
`descriptive
`
`features of a
`personal computer
`
`relationships
`
`spatial
`
`similarity between
`twins
`dimensions of a room
`
`discrete action
`
`turning a computer on
`
`continuous action ski turn
`
`events
`
`start of a race
`
`pr