`
`
`
`EMILY F. STEVENS
`
`IMPROVING WORI‘IAII’IIiIIIIIICE PERFORMANCE
`HYPERTEXT,
`HYPERMEDIA
`AND
`MULTIMEDIA
`
`
`
`GEORGE H. STEVENS
`
`Facebook's Exhibit No. 1005
`
`Page 1
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`Facebook's Exhibit No. 1005
`Page 1
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`

`

`DESIGNING
`ELECTRONIC
`PERFORMANCE
`SU1PPORT
`TOOLS
`
`IMPROVING WORKPLACE PERFORMANCE
`WITH
`HYPERTEXT,
`HYPERMEDIA
`AND
`MULTIMEDIA
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`

`

`IMPROVING WORKPLACE PERFORMANCE
`WITH
`HYPERTEXT,
`HYPERMEDIA
`AND
`MULTIMEDIA
`
`GEORGE H. STEVENS
`EMILY F. STEVENS
`
`EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY PUBLICATIONS
`ENGLEWOOD CLIFFS, NEW JERSEY 0763~
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`

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`Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
`
`Stevens, George H., 1959-
`Designing electronic performance support tools : improving
`workplace performance with hypertext, hypermedia, and multimedia/
`George H. Stevens, Emily F. Stevens.
`p. cm.
`Includes bibliographical references and index.
`ISBN 0-87778-283-0
`1. Interactive multimedia. 2. Multimedia systems. 3. Employees(cid:173)
`-Training of--Computer-assisted instruction. I. Stevens, Emily F.,
`. II. Title.
`1958-
`QA76.76.159S74 1995
`006.6--dc20
`
`94-34325
`CIP
`
`Copyright © 1995 by Educational Technology Publica(cid:173)
`tions, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632. All rights
`reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or
`transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic or
`mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any
`information storage and retrieval system , without
`permission in writing from the Publisher.
`
`Printed in the United States of America.
`
`Library of Congress Catalog Card Number:
`94-34325.
`
`International Standard Book Number:
`0-87778-283-0.
`
`First Printing: January, 1995.
`
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`

`

`Dedication
`
`For Harry and Lib Friggle, who taught me to love learning.
`For Josh, Laura and Wesley Stevens, who remade our world.
`-EFS
`
`For Richard and Barbara Stevens, who have made my work possible.
`-GHS
`
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`

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`Acknowledgments
`
`Many people gave their encouragement, their time and their resources to help us
`bring this book to you. We are especially grateful to the following friends:
`Lewis W. Parks, Director, Professional Education Division, Arthur Andersen &
`Co. S.C., for his review and criticism of first and second drafts of the manuscript,
`and for an unending stream of wonderful ideas. Lew is a consummate
`professional, mentor and dear friend.
`Gary Frazer, Partner, Catalina Consulting Group, for his generous, and "brutally
`honest" review and feedback on the first draft of the manuscript. Thanks also,
`Gary, for encouraging our exploration of these technologies those many years
`ago.
`Bill Sebers, Senior Instructional Design Consultant, American Management
`Systems, for his review of, and feedback on the manuscript.
`Ned Simpson, President, NJSJ Inc., for his review of, and feedback on the
`manuscript.
`David Schwartz, Senior Consultant, Booz • Allen and Hamilton, for his assistance
`with graphic designs in Chapter Three.
`Michael Korchemny, for his editorial support in our preparation of the final
`manuscript.
`Lawrence Lipsitz, Publisher, Educational Technology Publications, for his patient
`and persistent support as the book moved from idea to final product.
`
`vii
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`About the Authors
`
`George H. Stevens
`George H. Stevens is a partner at Integrated Performance Designs, a consulting
`firm specializing in the design of technology-based performance improvement
`interventions and systems. He has thirteen years experience designing
`instructional and non-instructional solutions to human performance needs
`including computer-based reference, computer-based training, job-task
`automation, expert advisor and EPSS solutions.
`In his role at Integrated Performance Designs, George's client organizations
`include Andersen Consulting, Arthur Andersen & Company, the Internal Revenue
`Service, PHH FleetAmerica, The National Automated Clearing House
`Association, G.E. Information Services, and many others. Prior to working with
`Integrated Performance Designs, he served as Director of Education for the
`American College of Healthcare Executives and worked as an instructional
`designer for Arthur Andersen & Company. He serves as an adjunct faculty
`member for the Graduate School of Continuing Studies at The Johns Hopkins
`University. George holds a Master of Science degree in Instructional Design,
`Development and Evaluation from Syracuse University.
`
`Emily F. Stevens
`Emily F. Stevens is Manager, Training Technologies for T. Rowe Price
`Retirement Plan Services, Inc. In this role, she manages performance support
`initiatives including computer-based training, computer-based reference,
`multimedia, and hypertext applications.
`Emily has fourteen years experience in performance improvement, during which
`she has managed the design and development of performance improvement
`interventions in media ranging from classroom and self instructional materials to
`interactive videodisc, hypertext, hypermedia and multimedia. Emily has authored
`or co-authored dozens of articles on topics including instructional design,
`technology-based performance improvement interventions and organizational
`change strategy. She holds a Master of Science Degree in Instructional Design,
`Development and Evaluation from Syracuse University.
`
`ix
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`How to Read this Book
`
`While it is possible to read this book from cover to cover, most people won't want
`to do that. Since different readers will likely have different priorities, it makes
`more sense to point out where different readers may wish to first focus their
`attention. The table below is an overview of where to go for different types of
`information. These concerns range from those of the new EPSS designer to the
`experienced designer, and the line manager who doesn't want or need to know
`"how to" design EPSS tools, but instead wants to know "why one should bother,"
`and "what's in it for our organization."
`
`If you are interested in ...
`
`This information
`
`Do this ...
`
`What EPSS is about, how it can
`benefit your organization ..
`
`Conceptual
`
`• Read Chapter 1: Human Performance and EPSS
`• Read Chapter 2: Technologies of EPSS
`• Read Chapter 3: Anatomy of an Application
`• Read Chapter 10: EPSS and Organizational
`Change: Three Cases
`
`How to:
`
`• Plan information and file structures
`
`Prescriptive (How-to)
`
`• Read Chapter 4: Planning Information and
`File Structures
`
`• Create a navigational design
`
`• Read Chapter 5: Navigation
`
`• Create an interface design
`
`• Read Chapter 6: Interface Design
`
`• Design embedded performance tools
`
`• Read Chapter 7: Embedded Tools
`
`• Get started with an application
`
`•Whereto go for additional information
`
`• Read Chapter 8: Getting Started with
`Applications
`
`• Read References and Citations
`• Read Chapter 9: Hardware and Software
`• Glossary
`
`If --~
`
`Selected Topics:
`
`• Manager's overview
`
`Conceptual
`
`• Read Chapters 1, 2, and 10
`
`• Designer prescriptions
`
`~ -J~~-~~d;/~he~~ii~;; . . . ... . - ......... ... , i ..... -.......... ~ ·;~~ ~~~p·t:;s· ~: ~.- ;: ~.- ~.-6:;: ~: ~~d 9-... . .
`
`Prescriptive (How-to)
`
`• Read Chapters 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9
`
`• Review the list of job aids
`
`Using the Glossary
`This book has a glossary. The glossary includes terms used in the book, and other
`pertinent terms which are not used in this book. When a term listed in the glossary
`is used for the first time in the text of the book, it will appear in SMALL CAPITAL
`LETTERS. If you come to such a term, and are not familiar with its meaning, you
`can look up its definition in the glossary.
`
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`Table of Contents
`
`How to Read This Book ,,,~···· ., ............ ,.+ ...... ~ ........ ..... ., ........ .... . .. ~,+, ........... .. .. , .. ....... . i .. iii,t· t••• .. ••. , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . .....
`
`xi
`
`List of Job Aids (Tables) ....... •ii"'''"'',, ,, .. ,.··~ •.••• ,, i,,,, •... , •• ,.,,.. .. ... ,. .. 1. , .. , .• ii • • • • , , , .. ... .. .
`
`.. . . . . . . . .
`
`. . . · · · ~· · · .. ,
`
`, . . . . . . . . ~ ,. . • •••
`
`List of Figures ...... ~ . .., .. ~-
`
`.i ~~ ... .... ... . ....... ... ~ ...... ~~ ........ .. .. . . . ~ i . , 1,1,,111, , . ••• , • ••• , • • i 1,1o ... , 1,., • .... , .
`
`. . . . ..... , •• • ••. • , . • ,,..... .... .
`
`xix
`
`xxi
`
`Preface ., ............ i i . . . . ... ,'!<··· ,, •• , •• ,. .... ........ ,, .! .. ..... ..... ... ...... ....... , ......... . .... ·····~ .. .... ... ..... ........... ........... ... . ,. .... , •••• , . ,.. . ...... xxiii
`
`Chapter One: Human Performance and Electronic Performance Support ... ...............
`What this book is about. .................................. ., .......................................... .,..................................
`The advent of personal computers .......................... .,.........................................................................
`Why quality and productivity challenges persist .................... ................................................. ....
`Workplace performance needs and the role of computers ................................................... .,.......
`Problem: Lack of job skill and knowledge............... ...........................................................
`Problem: Lack of immediately needed, task- and situation-specific information. ...............
`Problem: A need for expert advice to solve unusually difficult work problems ..................
`Problem: A need for customized tools . ........................ ., ........................................... ., ..... .,...........
`Problem: A need for coaching computer-based job skills. ...................................................
`Put it all together: It's electronic performance support......................................................................
`Organizational Implementation of EPSS . .,........................................................................................
`Staffing ~~ ~~~"' I, .. ...... ..
`. . . . . . ~ j, . . . . . . . . ~ • • • • • • ~ . . . . . . . . i it. , + .. ..... ~ • •• "" ... ,, . •••••• r••••ot·I • . . . . .... . . ... . . . . . ... .... ... +of-t 4. 4 • • " ..... .. .. . . . "
`Technology .... ,, ........... " ..... i •• ~ .. ~· ............................ .. . . . . . . . . . .......... .. .. i,,, ..... ............ 11 . ....... i, . . . ............. . . ~ •• •• ., ... .. ... ;; ..... ~........... ..
`Management role •++-. ............... + ••• t !'. !'·!'·"· ,._ ............... I 9 ~ i; ~ ~ .. +., ,, ... . ... .......... ~. j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ ~ ...... ~ .. .. " " .
`Where are performance support tools? ..................... .,., ...................................................... .,............
`Software construction systems: A solution ..................................................................................
`Do I need a software construction system? ............................. .,............... .....................................
`Multimedia vs. integrated hypermedia development systems ...............................................
`Summary ........ ii I!' . ! •• !' .. ... .. . ., . ... ... ,j. i I!' .. ~ t ti• . .. . . . . . . ..... ,t,t,i -
`!' !' .. t ............. . . ,, ...... ~. e ~ ~ ~ ....... .... ... . ..... II . . . . . . . . 9 ~ e ~ 5 .. " ..... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . " "' , , lt"t•-i-t++-1 1 'I! • •• •• II
`
`, . . . .
`
`,, . . . " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ..
`
`... .
`
`...... .
`
`.. . . . . . . . . ,;
`
`Chapter Two: The Technologies of Electronic Performance Support .......... .... .........
`Software and hardware capabilities of software construction systems .......................................
`Multimedia ....... , .. + ........................ ... ................. . .............. .... ...... . ...... ... ........................ .. .......... ~-~·~·'!'"5!!', .... , .......... . . . . . . . . . !'.!!' f'
`Multimedia editing tools ........................................................... . ...........................................
`Database capabilities ........................................................ .,........................................................
`Hypertext and hypermedia capabilities .................................................................................
`Additional capabilities ........................................ .,..........................................................................
`Data input to system by user ............................... .....................................................................
`Object-like development environment ............... ,., ........................ .,..............................................
`Ability to control external devices and programs ............................................................. ......
`Which type of development system is best for you? ................................................ ...................
`The cost of flexibility ........................................................................ ., ................ .............................. ,..
`Effective design: The final challenge ............................................................................................
`
`- - - -
`
`- - -- - -
`
`-
`
`- -
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`1
`2
`2
`3
`4
`4
`5
`5
`6
`6
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`10
`11
`11
`12
`13
`15
`16
`
`19
`20
`20
`20
`21
`21
`22
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`23
`27
`27
`33
`33
`
`xiii
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`Chapter Two: The Technologies of Electronic Performance Support (continued)
`A philosophy of design for electronic performance support tools ..............................................
`Good design makes the machine invisible. ........................................................................... .
`You must be a visionary planner to capitalize on opportunities. . .........................................
`Designs are for users, not designers . ....................................................... ,, ........................ ,,........
`Analysis is not only essential, it is everything ......................................................... ..............
`Rapid prototyping should be used extensively ............ ........................................... ................
`.. ...... ~ ~ ....... .... . . . . . . . . .. . .. ~ ~ ...... ~ t+ ........ .. ~ ............ . . . . . . . . .. t• t t+ ......... . . . . . . . . ., ...... ~ ~~~· ~, 1 ... i......
`Summary .. t ...... , ............ . . . . . . . . . .. .. . ..
`
`. . . . . . . . . .... .
`
`Chapter Three: Anatomy of an Application ....... .......................... .... ...............................
`. .. .. . , ... t ..... . , . . . . . . . . . . . .......... .... + ... .. ,. . . . . . . .... . ....... ......... +.........................................................
`Introduction ........ t ........ ........ ..... . . . . . ...... .....
`Components of hypermedia .. ................................. ,, ........................... ,,............................................
`Application ...................... ,. ........................................... . ,,.......... ..................................................
`Node ........ _ .... , ..... ....................... ~ ................. 4 .. .. . . . . ~ .. . .. ,. ........ + ............ i ~ ............. ,, ,. . . . . . . . .... .. + 4 •• ii*......................................................
`Information .... ~ .. ~ -= - •• " .. r .... .. " . . . . . . . . . . ... ..... .. . . . . FF""' ..... ,i • • • • • • • •
`. . . . .. . . I +4 .. ~ ~ i .
`.. ii .. ~" • • • • • • • • • ~ .. .. + 1 4+ 4•4 .. ~ i ,i • • i, ... ..... , . .. , • • • • • • • • 1 i ~ i I, ... i,;. p
`Object.,, .................................. ..................... ............ .......................... ................................. ....
`Link ., ! 44, ... , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .... .. ,. . . . . . . . ... .. .. .. . ...... = ... ...... ...... ..... . ....... ............ .... . .. .. ........ .. ,. ... . ..... ..... ... + .... . . . . . . . . . ...
`. ,. ...... . . . ,F,, . .,............ .
`Script ............ ~F .. l<i!+4 .... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... ...... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`Metaphors ...........................................................................................................................................
`Object layers ........ ,..,. ................ ~~ .. ~ .. ~~=···"· ............. ·······~~ ..... ~ .... ~ .......................... , ;0. . . . . . ,~~ , . . . . 1, • • 1 ....... . . . . . . . . . ,+4++•• • i·· .. ••• ••• •
`How components interact: An illustration ....... ,,...........................................................................
`Background objects , .. ;, ...................................................................... :.........................................
`Foreground objects .................................................................................................................
`Summary ..... "'!• ~ ~ ... ~ ~ .. ... j, . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`, , ••'t4't '" ! . ! ................. ... ••••• •••• 5 .. ....... " .. .... ~ - ~ .. ~ t ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., • • • • • • • -
`
`, ,.. . . .
`
`.
`
`,. • • • • • 5 ..... .. 4.4 .. ., .. . ;, . ........ . .... . . . . . . . 5 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . ...... 4 .. 4
`
`- = e .. R ..... . ...... " • • • • • • • • • • t ' ' tl1'44 ••
`
`-
`
`.... .
`
`Chapter Four: Planning Information Structures and File Structures ........................ ..... .
`Introduction ....... ~, ................................... ~~ ...... P,., .......................... .. "
`. !Fr .. .. +, .... ...... ........ , ....... .. . ~ .. "" ·41 .. ~ . . . . . . . . .... ,., .. ... ~ ..... ,~ , . . . . .......
`Analyzing performance support opportunities ............................................................................
`Analysis for excellence .................. ,, .................................................................................... , ... ; .. ,,
`Guidelines for analysis .............................................................................................................
`Benefits of information and file structure planning .....................................................................
`Improved communication ............................................... ............................................................
`Rapid re-purposing of information ........................................................ ,; •. ,............ ..............
`Information planning....................................................................................................................
`Information planning part 1: Classification. ..........................................................................
`Classification category I: How users access information ......................... ......................
`Classification category II: Information function within application ............................ ...
`Classification category III: Information format ............................................................. .
`Information planning part 2: Labeling . ... ,,................................................... ..........................
`Planning file and node structures ......................................................... .................................... .......
`File structure vs. information structure ....................................................................................
`Guidelines for planning file structures ...................................................................................
`Putting it all together: Examples of how information classification and
`file structure plans work ~•r •• l'•o·••••••••••••••••••ttt,,t,t~,t•••il~r••1•• • •••••••• •• ·••••~11~Pti!tP+,t,~~•••• •• • • m11 1,1-•••~~~~11,,1~t,•••
`Re-purposing using conditional links and appropriate file and node structures ...................
`Re-purposing with selective duplication of nodes ............................................. ...................
`Creating multiple types of applications ............................... ..................................................
`Summary .... ,, ........................................................................ '. ......................... ,,................................... ...
`
`xiv
`
`34
`35
`35
`35
`36
`38
`39
`
`41
`42
`42
`42
`42
`42
`43
`43
`43
`45
`46
`48
`48
`50
`50
`
`51
`52
`52
`53
`54
`61
`61
`62
`63
`65
`67
`67
`68
`68
`68
`68
`72
`
`74
`74
`76
`77
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`.
`
`.
`
`.
`
`.
`
`.
`
`.
`
`. . ..... 11 ...... . , • • ,
`
`. "' .
`
`.
`
`.
`
`.
`
`.
`
`... .
`
`. . ~ . .. . . . . . . f ! ! ,!···· ................ 1 . ....... , .. ,...
`Chapter Five: Navigation -~ .. ... .. ....... 1. 1 . , , • • • •• , . . .
`79
`Introduction .... ! ! ...... ......... . ,. .. . . . . . . . ~ ····•+""·' .. ..... ............ .. ............................ ,. .................... .. ~ ~ ... , ...... .......... ... .. ., .... , ........ ,. ....... .. .. + .. .... ,.,g............
`81
`82
`Goals of navigational design ,, ............................................................................................ .,..............
`Problem: Getting lost in hypermedia ....................................................................................
`82
`Problem: Wandering focus of attention .............. ,,,,.,. ........................... ,, ......................... ,, ... ,, .. rn..
`83
`84
`Providing a contextual overview .................................................................................................
`84
`Enabling a user to access the type, richness and representational form of support needed..
`Designing navigation .............. +._ ........................... +of .. !!•,., ... ,. ... .. . . ....... +, .... , ............ ,. .............. + .... +,········"·······,..···i·····!····
`84
`84
`Approaches to Navigational Design ...................................................... ,, .. ,.,............................
`Navigational tools: Links ............ + .... !t!!, .. ,,, .. ,. ............ 1.,,, ................... i, ............ i i ! ! ..... ,,.~ •• ~ .
`85
`Types of li~ks ....... ., .......... ~ .. "'''" .. ~""········"·'"·~;1,, .. ,++, ..... ~··· ·· .. ,•········"·· ...... 1~······· .. ·· ···~••11,~~~~ .... " .............................. ~......
`86
`89
`Additional link characteristics .................................................................................. .......................
`89
`Visual/physical characteristics ................................................................................................
`89
`Links embedded in text ...........................................................................................................
`92
`Links which are screen objects ..............................................................................................
`98
`Navigational quality control..................... ................................................................... ...........
`Navigational tools: Maps ....................... ,,............................................ ..... ........................................ 100
`The purpose of maps ................................................................................................................ 101
`Hierarchical overview map .................. ,,.......................................................................................... 102
`History map ~"'"'·"'············R+•·•+1·"···············'P~~ ................................... 1"~···· ................... ~ .... ," ....... ,~.~+~ ........ ............. ,5~·~
`I 03
`Chronological map .............................................................................................................. ,......... 105
`fo ~fo ·fofo •" a• ••• ••~ I' l'io+-fi ,f ! ~ • • • • ~r,, • N ••a • • r r •r.,.• 'I••~ ~ fo ~+ I ,t • ~ N •a•••,•~ "a•• i, ~ ~ t, t, fo+i~ ,f ,f ~ ! • • • • • •• t, 1 rt1• ,i ,i Ii ii• ii I+ •+++of ,f,N .. I • • •• •• •• i
`using maps ••••~~ fo
`106
`Using maps to increase the versatility of applications ................................................... ............. 107
`Combining links and maps: Examples of navigational tactics in
`hypermedia and multimedia ......................................... ,, ................................................ .... ,,.. 108
`Providing feedback and displaying hidden information in a node .......................................... 108
`Using a "hot map" to show users an application structure and facilitate navigation ............ 110
`Designing navigation strategies: Recommendations for designers ........................................ 115
`Instructional applications .... 1-++~1"·················"'+• .. ~••1J•~•, , ...... .. . ..... 1+ ... ,til,,, .. ........ .. .. .. . .... + .. +1·if••,·········. .................. 115
`Reference applications ............... ...... .. . . ........... ............ .............. .......... ........... .. . . . . . ............. .. . . 116
`Defining navigational paths ....................................................................... ,...................................
`117
`Describing a navigational design .................................. ,,,, .............................................................. .;, 120
`Summary .. .. ~ ..................... ·~············"+"1······· .............. ++4'14•,·················1·+••······,················I-+• ... ,, ...................... e.......... 120
`
`. . . . . .... ...... i ••• , . , , , , , , •• ,. ,. .... .. ...
`
`. . . . .... .
`
`Chapter Six: Interface Design . ........... ....................... ............ ......... ......... . ., .................... .,.... 123
`Introduction ........... " ...... " .. +· ..................... ~. ~, ...................... ,, .... ·••1+•• .•.... , ................. ,t +4" ~ ! , . . . ... .. . ~,. •••• • •• I·"·"·"·~ ... .... .. .. ....... +1, ....... " 125
`What is an interface? ............. ;. .. + ............................................................... ~, ... +·····"·······••••+••·········· ............. 1 . . . . .. . ".......
`125
`Screen functionality ............................. + .. "···· .......................... i ... ,.""+·········"····· ... i • • i""""••" ····· ·· ···-t••• .. +••·"·········..
`127
`Link functionality ···~ ............... ++-t•·················"· .......... ++.,. ..................... "+"·1·········· .... .,...,,.,i ,. •••••••• ". ..... ....... .. ..... 128
`Reality metaphors ................................................ i . ..... 1,!················· ......... !~······ ................ "."""················ ................... ~~· 129
`How does one design an interface? ............................................. ............................ ...................... .... 129
`Step 1: Determine the core functions to be performed by an application. ............................ 129
`Step 2: Select an appropriate overall screen anatomy which accommodates the
`derived functions ............ ~ ............................ ; . .,,. .. ,, .... ,,1 ........ ~ ..................... + ........ . . . . . .. ~~· · .... . . ~ .... ~ .. 5~.......... ........... 132
`Step 3: Create a unique, but complementary visual background for each major function... 139
`Step 4: Create link families which establish common visual characteristics for
`links of similar function . ..................................................... .,............................................. 140
`Step 5: Design menus and data inputs for ease of use . ................ .,.............................. ........... 140
`Step 6: Design redundant controls for user input devices..................................................... 140
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`xv
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`Facebook's Exhibit No. 1005
`Page 11
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`Chapter Six: Interface Design (continued)
`Step 7: Select a strategy for the display of supplemental information................................... 143
`Step 8: Design visual and audio effects which will be used consistently to
`communicate navigational transition. ............................................................................... 143
`Step 9: Test the interface design ................................................................................................. 147
`The user input interface ................................................................................................................... 148
`Summary .................... ,,.,;.. ................ ~ _ ~ r .... .... ... .. ~_~ ..... , ... ,I .. . i . . . .. . ........ ,i • • • • ~ .... ~ • • • • • • • r . . . ........ ~ .. _ ~ . r l ' r .••• ••• ~ ~ .. r ~ i,,i,,t,o•• • • • • ,
`. ... ..... . . . . .,,,~ . . . . . ... .. t. 148
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`Chapter Seven: Embedded Tools .,............ .............. .................. ...... .. ....................... ............ 151
`Introduction .............................. r, .. ...... . . . ... . . .. ... , ......... . .. ... ........ , .. ,. .............. ~ ................ ,, ••• !i~ . . ........ ..... . i·····~····~······~-... ,................. 152
`Tools to exp~nd u~~r _capabilities .................................................................................... ............... 153
`Note-taking utiltt1es ................................................................................................................ 153
`Custom calculation and analysis utilities ............................................................................... 156
`Controlling other applications ........................................................................................................ 158
`Tools to aid designers ....................... ................... .................................... ............... ............... ........ 159
`User navigational audits ............................................................................................................ 159
`Tools to aid application managers ....................................................................................... ............. 161
`Utilization tracking tools ...................... ........................................................................................ 161
`Computer-managed instruction (CMI) functions .................................. ................................ . 165
`Summary ............ j, .. ....... a.~~~ i •• ••• . . . .... .
`172
`. • + ••••••••• ,r ....... . . ·· ~··· · ........... ! ... . . . . . . . . t •t ..... .... .
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`. . . . .... .. , .. . . . . . .. ..... .... .......... ........ .
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`.. . . . . . . . . . . .. ........ , . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... . . . . .
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`" . . . . . . . . . ! , . . . . . . ,, . ... .. , ... . . . . . . § • • .. .. ... .
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`Chapter Eight: Getting Started with Applications .. ............... ............ ................................ 17 5
`Introduction .................... ,, ..... ~ i; ~ . . .. .. .
`17 6
`.. .... . ~ ~ ....... .. ..... ~ § . ... .
`Instructional applications ............................................................................................................... 176
`Issue: Optimizing navigational design ................. ...................................................................... 176
`Issue: Feedback .............. ..................................................................................................... ........ 180
`Reference and documentation applications ..................................................... . ............................ 184
`Issue: Information structure ................................................................................ ..................... 184
`Issue: User access .... ,t•·•+·,,····"~"· ·'"'· ···· .. ~········· -- ·········· "" ""··· .. """"'· ·· .. ····""" ······•·•-t" .............................. lt...................... 185
`Task automation applications ............................................................................................................... 188
`Issue: What should be automated? ............................................................................................. 189
`Applications using multimedia .................................................................................................... 190
`Issue: Helping clients define and commun