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`Nokia V. IV 11 LLC
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`Ex. 1012 / Page 1 of 35
`Ex.1012/Pagelof35
`
`

`

`Wireless ·.
`Communications
`
`Principles and Practice
`
`Theodore s~ Rappaport
`
`I
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`.
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`.
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`I
`
`For book and bookstore information
`
`http://www.pr~nhall.com .
`
`.•
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`.
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`iii
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`.
`·
`.
`Prentice Hall PTR
`Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
`
`Ex. 1012 / Page 2 of 35
`
`

`

`'
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`'
`
`Editorial/production manager: Camille Trentacoste
`·
`Cover design director: Jerry Votta
`Cover designer: Antlwny Gemmellaro
`Manufacturing manager: Alexis R Heydt
`Acqliisitions editor: Karen Gettman
`Edito:rial assistant: Barbara Alfieri
`
`. . © 1996 by Prentice H~l PTR
`Prentice-Hall, Inc. ·
`A Simon & Schuster Company
`Upper Saddle River, .New Jersey 07458
`
`The publisher offers discounts on this book ~hen ordered in bulk
`quantities. For more information, contact Corporate Sales Department,
`Prentice Hall PTR, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
`Phone: 800-382-34i9; FAX: 201- 236-7141.
`E-mail: corpsales@prenhall.com
`
`I
`
`•
`
`All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,
`in any form or by any. means,
`.
`without permission in writing from the publish~r.
`'
`All product names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective own~rs.
`
`•
`
`J
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`-
`
`'
`
`. Printed in the United States of America
`10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
`.2 1
`
`ISBN 0-13-375536-3
`
`Prentice-Hall International (UK) Limited, London
`Prentice-Hall of Australia Pty. Limited, Sydney
`Prentice-Hali Canada Inc., Toronto
`Prentice-Hall Hispanoamericana, S.A., Mexico
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`Prentice-Hall of Japan, Inc., Tokyo
`Simon & Schuster Asia Pte. Ltd., Singapore
`Editora Prentice-Hall do Brasil, Ltda·., Rio de Janeiro
`
`Ex. 1012 / Page 3 of 35
`
`

`

`Contents
`
`Preface
`1 · Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems
`1.1 Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications
`1.2 Mobile Radiotelephone in the U.S. ·
`1.3 Mobile Radio Systems Around the World .
`1.4 Examples· of Mobile Radio Systems ,
`1.4.1 Paging Systems
`1.4.2 Cordless Telephone Systems
`1.4.3 Cellular Telephone Systems
`1.4.4 Comparison of Comm~n Mobile Radio Systems
`1.5 'Trends in Cellular Radio' and Personal Communications
`. 1.6 Problems ·
`·2 The Cellular Concept -. System Design Fundamentals
`2.1 Introduction
`· 2.2 Frequency Reuse .
`2.3 Cliannel AssigTiment Strategies
`2.4 Handoff Strategies ·
`2.4.1 Ptj.oritizing Handoffs
`2:4.2 Practical Handoff Considerations ·
`2.5 Interference and Systell!- Capacity
`2.5 .1 . Co-channel Interference and. System Capacity
`2.5.2 Adjacent Channel"Interference
`2.5.3 Power Control for Reducing Interference
`2.6 Trunking and Grade of Service
`
`v
`
`xi
`1
`1
`. 4
`6
`9
`11
`13
`·1,4
`17
`20
`22
`25
`25
`26
`30
`31
`34
`34
`37
`37
`41
`43
`44
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`Ex. 1012 / Page 4 of 35
`
`

`

`vi
`
`· 2.7 Improving Capacity in Cellular Systems
`2. 7 .1 Cell Splitting
`2.7.2 Sectoring
`2.7.3 A Novel MicrocellZone Concept
`2.8 Suffimary
`2.9 Problems
`3 Mobile Radio Propagation: Large-Scale Path Loss
`3 .1 Introduction to Radio Wave Propagation
`3 .2 Free Space Propagation Model
`3 .3 Relating Power to Electric Field
`3.4 The Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms
`3 .5 Reflection
`3 .5 .1 Reflection from Dielectrics
`3.5.2 .Brewster Angle
`3.5.3 Reflection from Perfect Conductors-
`3 .6 Ground Reflection (2-ray) Model
`3.7 Diffraction
`3.7.1 Fresnel Zone Geometry
`3.7.2 Knife-edge Diffraction Model
`3.7.3 Multiple Knife-edge Diffraction
`3.8 Scattering
`3.8.J Radar Cross Section Model
`· 3.9 Practical Link Budget Design using Path Loss Models
`3.9.1 Log-distance Path Loss Model
`3.9.2 Log-nonnal Shadowing ·
`3 .9 .3 Determination of Percentage of Coverage Area
`3.10 Outdoor propagation Models .
`3.10.1 Longley-RiceModel
`3.10.2Purkin's Model-ACase Study
`, 3.10.3 Okumura Model
`. 3.10.4 HataModel
`3.10.5 PCS Extension to HataModel
`3.10.6 Walfiscb and Bertoni Model
`· 3 .10.7 Wideband PCS Microcell Model
`3. ~ 1 Indoor Propagation Models
`/ 3 .. 11.1 Partition Los~es (same floor)
`3.ll.2 Partition Losses between Floors
`. 3.11.3 Log-distance Path Loss Model
`3 .11.4 Ericsson Multipie Breakpoint Model
`·. 3.11.5 Attenuation Factor Model
`-
`3.12 Signal Penetration into Bqildings
`3.13 Ray Tracing and Site Specific Modeling ·
`3 .14 Problems
`
`' . .
`
`Contents
`
`54
`54
`57
`61
`. 63
`63
`69
`69
`70
`74
`78
`78
`79
`84
`85
`85
`90
`91
`94
`99
`100
`101
`102
`102
`104
`106
`110
`110
`111
`116
`119
`120
`120
`121
`123
`123
`126
`126
`128
`128
`131
`132 '
`133
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`Ex. 1012 / Page 5 of 35
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`

`

`Contents
`
`Contents
`
`vii
`
`'
`
`54
`54
`57
`61
`63 .
`63
`69
`69
`70
`74
`78
`78
`79
`84
`85
`85
`90
`91
`94
`99
`100
`101
`102
`102
`104
`106
`110
`110
`111
`116.
`119
`120
`120
`121
`123 .
`123
`126
`126
`128
`128
`1_31
`132 .
`133
`
`!
`
`4 Mobile Radio Propagation: Small-Scale Fading and Multipath 139
`4.1 Small-Scale Multipath Propagation
`139
`4.1.1 Factors Influencing Small-Scale Fading
`140
`4.1.2 Doppler Shift
`141
`. 143
`4.2 Impulse Response Model of a Multipq.th Channel
`4.2.1 Relationship Between Bandwidth and Received Power
`147
`4.3 Small-Scale Multipath Measurement.S
`153
`4.3.1 Direct RF Pulse System
`154
`4.3.2 Spread Spectrum Sliding Correlator Channel Sounding
`155
`4.3.3 Frequency Domain Chann.el Sounding .
`158
`4.4 Parameters of Mobile Multipath Channels
`159
`4.4.1 Time Dispersion Parameters
`160
`4.4.2 Coherence Bandwidth
`163
`4.4.3 Doppler Spread and Coherence Time
`165
`4.5 Types of Small-Scale Fading
`167
`4.5.1 Fading Effects Due to Multipath Time Delay Spread
`168
`4.5.2 Fading Effects Due to Doppler Spread
`170
`4.6 Rayleigh and Ricean Dis~ibutions
`• 172
`172
`4.6.1 Rayleigh Fading Distribution
`4.6.2 Ricean Fading Distribution
`174
`4.7 Statistical Models for Multipath Fading Channels
`176
`4. 7 .1 Clarke's Model for Flat Fading
`177
`4.7.2 Simulation of Clarke and Gans Fading Model
`1~1
`4. 7 .3 Level Cros~ing _and Fading Statistics
`185
`4. 7.4 Two-ray Rayleigh Fading Model
`188
`4;7.5Saleh and Valenzuela Indoor Statistical Model
`188
`4.7.~ SIRCIM and SMRCIM Indoor and Outdoor Statistical Models
`189
`4.8 Problems
`192
`5 Modulation Techniques .for Mobile Radio
`197
`·5.1 Frequency Modulation vs. Amplitude Modulation
`198
`5 .2 Amplitude Modulation
`199
`5.4.1 Single Sideband AM
`202
`5.2.2 Pilot Tone SSB
`203
`5.2.3 Demodulation of AM signals
`206
`5 .3.Angle Modulation
`206
`5.3.lSpectra and Bandwidth of FM Signals
`208
`5.3.2 FM Modulation Methods
`209
`. 211
`5.3.3 FM Detection Techniques
`5.3.4Tradeoff Between SNR and Bandwidth.in an FM Signal
`. 219
`5 .4 Digital Modulation -
`an Overview
`220
`5 .4.1 Factors That Influence· the Choice of Digital Modulation
`221
`5 .4.2 Bandwidth and Power Spectral Density of Digital Signals
`224
`5.4.3 Line Coding ·
`225
`5.5 Pulse Shaping Techniques
`225
`\
`5.5.1 Nyquist Criterion for ISI Cancellation
`227
`
`...
`
`Ex. 1012 / Page 6 of 35
`
`

`

`viii
`
`'
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`'
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`5.5.2 Raised Cosj.ne RolloffFilter
`5.5.3 Gaussian Pulse-shaping Filter
`5 .6 Geollletric Representation of Modulation Signals
`5.7 Linear Modulation Techniques
`5.7.1 Binary Phase ShiftKeying (BPSK)
`5.7.2 Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK)
`5.7.3 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
`5.7.4 QPSK Transmission and Detection Techniques
`5.7.5 Offset QPSK
`5.7.6 n/4 QPSK
`5.7.7 n/4 QPSK Transmission Techniques
`5.7.8 n/4 QPSK Detection Techniques
`5 .8 Constant Envelope Modulation ·
`5.8.l Binary Frequency Shift Keying
`5.8.2 Minimlim Shift Keying (MSK)
`5.8.3 Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK)
`5.9 Combined Linear and Constant Envelope Modulation Teehniques
`5.9:1 M-ary Phase Shift Keying (MPSK)
`5.9;2 M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
`5:9.3 M-ary Frequency Shift Keying (MFSK)
`5.10 Spread Spectrum Modulation Techniques
`5.10.1 Pseudo-noise (P,N) Sequences
`5.10.2 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DS-SS)
`5.10.3 Frequency Hopped Spread Sp'ectrum (FH-SS)
`5 .10.4 Performance of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
`5.10.5 Performance of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
`5 .11 Modulation Performance in Fading and Multipath Channels
`5.11.1 PerfoJ'lllance ofDigitalMOdulation in Slow, Flat Fading Channels
`5 .11.2 Digital Modulation in Frequency Selective Mobile Channels
`5.11.3 Performanee ofn/4 DQPSK in Fading and Interference
`5.12 Problems
`'
`·
`6 Equalization, Diversity, and Channel Coding
`6.1 Introduction
`6.2 Fundamentals of Equalization
`· 6.3 A Generic Adaptive Equalizer
`6.4 Equalizers in a Communications Receiver
`6.5 Survey of Equalization Techniques
`6.6 Linear Equalizers
`6.7 Nori}inear Equalization
`· 6.7.1 Dedsion Feedback Equalizatio~ (DFE)
`6.7.2 Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimation (MLSE) Equalizer
`- 6.8 Algoritb,ms for Adaptive Equalization
`6.8.1 Zero Forcing Algorithm '
`'
`6.8.2 Least Mean Squ~e Algorithm
`6.8.3 Recursive Least Squares Algorithm
`6.8.4 Suinmary of Algorithms
`
`·. ,
`
`'
`
`Contents
`
`' 229
`233
`234
`238
`238
`242
`243
`246
`247
`249
`249
`' 252
`254
`256
`259
`261
`267
`267
`270
`272
`274
`275
`276
`278
`280
`'283
`284
`285
`289
`290
`294
`299 ' '
`299
`300
`303
`307
`308
`310
`312
`313
`'315
`316 '
`318
`319
`321
`323
`
`Ex. 1012 / Page 7 of 35
`
`

`

`Contents
`
`229
`233
`234
`238
`238
`242
`243
`246
`247
`249
`249
`. 252
`254
`256
`259
`261
`267
`267
`270
`272
`274
`275
`276
`278
`280
`283
`284
`285
`289
`290
`294
`299 1
`299
`300
`303
`307
`308
`310
`312
`313
`. 315
`316 .
`318
`319
`321
`323
`
`iels
`
`Contents
`
`ix
`
`6.9 Fractionally Spaced Equalizers
`6.10 Diversity Techniques
`6.10~ 1 Derivation of Selection Diversity Improvement
`6.10.2 Derivation of Maximal Ratio Combining Iritprovement
`6.10.3 Practical Space Diversity Considerations .
`6.10.4 Polarization Diversity
`6.10.5 Frequency Diversify
`6.10.6 Time Diversity
`6.11 RAKE Receiver
`6.12 Interleaving
`6.13 Fundamentals of.Channel Coding
`6.14 Block Codes
`6.14.1 Examples of Block Codes
`6.14.2 Case Study qfReed-Solomon Codes
`6.15 Convolutional Codes
`6.15 .1 Decoding of Convolutional Codes
`6.16 Coding Gain
`6.17 Trellis Coded Modulation
`6.18 Problems
`7 Speech Cocling
`7 .1 Introduction
`7 2 Characteristics of Speech: Signals
`7.3 Quantization Techniques .
`7.3.1 Uniform Quantization
`7.3.2 Nonuniforin Quantization
`7.3.3 Adaptive Quantization
`7.3.4 Vector Quantization
`7 .4 Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation
`7.5 Frequency Domain Coding of Speech
`7.5.1 Sub-band Coding ·
`7.5.2 Adaptive Transform Coding
`7 .6 Vocoders
`7 .6.1 Channel Vocoders
`7 .6.2 Formant V c:icoders
`7 .6.3 Cepstrum Vocoders
`7.6.4 Voice-Excited Vocoder
`7.7 Linear Predictive Coders
`7.7.1 LPC Vocoders
`. 7.7.2Multi~pulseExcitedLPC
`7.7.3 Cod~-Exdted LPC
`7.7.4.Residual Excited LPC
`7 .8 Choosing Speech Codecs for Mobile Communications
`7 .9 The GSM Codec
`7 .10 The USDC Codec
`7. n Perfomuµ1~e Evaluation of Speech Coders
`7 .12 Problems
`
`.,
`
`'
`
`I
`
`323
`325
`326
`328
`330
`332
`. 335
`335
`.336
`338
`339
`340
`344 .
`346
`352
`354
`356
`356
`357
`361
`361
`363
`365
`365
`365
`368
`368
`369
`371
`372
`375
`376
`.376
`377
`377
`378
`378 .
`378
`381
`382
`383
`384
`387
`389
`389
`392
`
`Ex. 1012 / Page 8 of 35
`
`

`

`· x
`8 Multiple Access Techniques for Wireless Communieations
`8.1 Introduction
`8.1.1 Introduction to Multiple Access
`8.2 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
`8.3 Time D~vision Multiple Access (Tl)MA)
`8.4 Spread Spectrum Multiple Access
`8.4.1 Frequency Hopped Multiple Access (FHMA)
`8.4.2 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
`8.4.3 Hybrid Spread Spectrum Techniques
`8.5 Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
`8.6PacketRadio ·
`8.6.1 Packet Radio Protocols
`8.6.2 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSl\'.IA) Protocols
`8.6.3 Reservation Protocols
`8.6.4 Capture Effect in Packet Ra4io
`8.7 Capacity of Cellular Systems
`. 8. 7.1 Capacity of Cellular CDMA ·
`8.7.2 Capacity of CDMA with Multiple Cells
`· 8.7.3 Capacity ofSp,ace Division Multiple Access
`·
`8.8 Prol;>lems
`9 Wireless Networking
`9.1 Introduction to Wireless Networks
`9 .2 Difference8· Between Wireless and Fixed Telephone Networks
`9 .2.1 The public Switched Telephone Netv7ork (PSTN)
`9.2.2 Limitations in Wireless Networking
`9 .2.3 Merging Wireless NetWorks and the PSTN
`9 .3 Development of Wireless.Networks
`9.3.1 First Generation Wireless Networks
`9.3:2 Second Generation Wireless Networks
`9.3.3 Third Generation Wireless NetworkS
`9 .4 Fixed Network Transmission Hierarchy
`9.5 Traffic Routing in Wireless Networks
`9.5.1 Circuit Switching
`9.5.2 Packet Switching .
`· 9.5.3 The X.25 Protocol
`9.9 Wireless Data Services
`9.6.1 Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD)
`9.6.2 Advanced Radio Dat.a: Information Systems (ARDIS)
`. 9.6.3 RAM Mobile Data (RMD)
`9.7 Common Channel Signaling (CCS)
`9.7.1 The Distributed Central Switching Office for·GCS
`9.8 Integrated Services Digital Network (iSDN)
`9.8.1 BroadbandISDNandATM .
`9 .9 Signaling System No. 7 (SS7)
`9.9.1 Network Services Part (NSP) of SS7
`
`"
`
`Contents
`
`395
`395
`396
`397
`400
`404
`404
`405
`407
`409
`410.
`411
`415
`416
`416
`417
`422
`425
`431
`437
`439
`439
`441
`441
`443
`444
`445
`445
`448
`449
`449
`4SO
`452
`452
`454
`455
`45.5
`457
`457
`458
`459
`461
`463
`463
`465
`
`,,
`
`1.
`1·
`
`Ex. 1012 / Page 9 of 35
`
`

`

`lS
`
`Contents
`395
`395
`396
`397
`400
`404
`404
`405
`407
`409
`410.
`411
`415
`416
`416
`417
`422
`425
`431
`437
`439
`439
`441
`441
`443
`444
`445
`445
`448
`449
`449
`4SO
`452
`452
`454
`455
`455
`457
`457
`. 458
`459
`461
`463
`463
`465
`
`t:i
`
`Contents
`
`9.9.2 The SS7 User Part
`9.9.3 Signaling Traffic in SS7
`9.9.4 SS7 Services
`9.9.5 Performance of SS7
`9.10 An example ofSS7 ~Global Cellular Network futeroperabilicy
`9.11 Personal Communication Services/Networks (PCS/PC:N)
`9 .11.1 Packet vs. Circuit switching for PCN
`9 .112 Cellular Packet-Switched Architecture
`9 .12 Protocols for Network Access
`\9 .12.1 Packet ,Reservati9n Multiple Access (PRMA)
`9.13 Network Databases
`9 .13 .1 Distributed Database for Mobility Management
`9.14 Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS)
`9.15 Summary
`10 Wireless System,s and Standards
`10.1 AMPS and ETACS
`~0.1.1 AMPS and}!TACS System Overview
`10.l.2 Call Handling in AMPS and ET ACS
`10.1 .3 AMPS and.ETACS Air Interface
`10.1.4 N-AMPS
`10.2 United States Digital Cellular (IS-54)
`10.2.1 USDC Radio Interface
`10.2.2 United States Digital Cellular Derivatives (IS-94 and IS-136)
`10.3 Global System for Mobile (GSM)
`10.3) GSM Serv,ices and Features
`10.3.2 GSM System Architecture
`· 10.3.3 GSM Radio Subsystem
`10.3.4 GSM Channel Types
`10.3.5 Example of a GSM Call
`10.3.6 Frame Structure for GSM
`10.3.7 Signal Processing in GSM
`10.4 CDMA Digital Cellular Standard (IS-95)
`10.4.1 Frequency and Channel Specifications
`10.4.2 Forward CDMA Channel . ·
`10.4.lReverse CDM,A Channel
`10.4.4 IS-95 with 14.4 kbps Speech Coder [ANS95]
`10.5 CT2 Standard For Cordless Telephones
`10 .5 .1 CT2 Services and Features
`10.5.2 The CT2.Struidard
`10.6 Digital ];uropean Cordless Telephone (DECT)
`10.6.1 Features and Characteristics
`10.6.2 DECT Architecture
`· 10.6.3 DECT Functional Concept
`10.6.4 DECT Radio Link
`
`xi
`
`466
`467
`468
`469
`469
`472
`472
`473
`477
`478
`479
`479
`480
`481
`483
`483
`484 ,
`485
`487
`491
`491
`493
`. 500
`500
`501
`502
`505
`507
`' 512
`513
`515
`519
`520 ,
`521
`527 ,
`533
`533
`533
`534
`$35
`535
`536
`. 537
`538
`
`Ex. 1012 / Page 10 of 35
`
`

`

`xii
`
`10.7 PACS - Personal Access Communication Systems
`10.7.1 PACS System Architecture
`10.7 .2 PACS Radio Interface
`10,8 Pacific Digital Cellular'(PDC)
`10.9 Personal Handyphone System (PHS).
`1_0.10 U.$. PCS and ISM Bands
`.
`10.11 U .S: Wireless Cable Television
`10.12 Summary of Standards Throughout the World
`i0.13 Problems
`.
`
`Contents
`
`539
`540
`I 541
`543
`544
`544
`547
`548
`551
`
`APPEND.CES
`555
`A Trunking Theory
`556 ·
`· A.1 Erlang B
`556
`A.1.1 Derivation of Erlang B
`561
`A.2 Erlang C
`A.2.1 Derivation of Erlang C .
`. 56.1
`565
`B .Noise Figure Calculations for Link Budgets
`569
`C Gaussian Approximations for Spread Spectrum CDMA
`577 '
`C.1 The Gaussian Approximation
`582
`C.2 The Improved Gaussian Approximation (IGA)
`C.3 A Simplified Express~on for the. Improved Gaussian Approximation (SEIGA) 585
`D Q, erf & erfc Functions
`·
`593
`D.1 'file Q-Function
`593
`595
`, D.2 The erf and erfc functions
`E ·Mathematical Tables
`599 ·
`607
`F Abbreviations and Acronyms
`G References
`617 .
`635
`Index
`
`1,
`I
`I
`
`·. '
`
`Ex. 1012 / Page 11 of 35
`
`

`

`:lip Sandhu
`
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`
`1
`
`Introduction to Wireless
`Communication Systems
`
`.
`
`.
`
`.
`
`The ability to comm~cate with people on
`
`the .move has evolved remarkably since Guglielmo Marconi first demonstrated
`radio's ability to provide continuous contact with ships sailing the English chan(cid:173)
`nel. That was in 1897, and since then n,ew wireless communications methods
`and services have been enthusiastically adopted by people throughout the world.
`:Particularly during-the past ten years, the mobile radio communications indus(cid:173)
`try has grown by orders of magnitude, fueled by digital and RF circuit fabrica(cid:173)
`tion
`·improvements, . new
`large-scale
`circuit . integration,
`and · other
`miniaturization technologies which make portable radio equipment smaller, '
`cheaper, and more reliable. Digital switching techniques have facilitated the
`· large scale deployment of affordable, easy-to-use radio communication network~.
`These trends will continue at an even gre"ater pace during the next decade.
`
`'
`
`'
`
`1.1 Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications
`A brief history of the evolution of mobile commllnications throughout the
`world is useful in- order to appreciate the enormous 'impact that cellular_ radio
`and personal communication services (PCS) will have on all of us over the next
`several decades-. It is also useful for a newcome:r: to t4e cellular radio field to
`-µnderstand the tremendous impact that government regulatory agencies and
`service competitors wield in the evolution of new wireless systems, services, and ·
`technologies. While it, is not the intent of this text to deal with the techno-politi(cid:173)
`cal aspects of cellular. radio and personal communications, techno-p~litics are a
`fundamental driver in the evolution of new technology and services, since radio
`spectrum usage is controlled by governments, not by service providers, equip(cid:173)
`ment manufacturers, entrepreneurs, ·or researchers. Progressive involvement in
`
`Ex. 1012 / Page 12 of 35
`
`

`

`2
`
`Ch. 1 • Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems
`
`. '
`
`.
`
`technology_ development is vital for a government if it hopes to keep its own coun(cid:173)
`try competitive in the rapidly changing field of wireless personal communica-
`tions.
`Wireless communications is enjoying its fastest growth period in history,
`due to enabling technologies which permit wide spread deployment. Historically,
`growth ill the mobile communications field has come slowly, and has been cou(cid:173)
`pled closely to technoloii.cal improvemel.l-tS. The ability to provide wireless com(cid:173)
`munications . to an . entire population was not even conceived until Bell
`Laboratories developed the cellular concept in the 1960s and 1970s [Nob62],
`I [Mac79], [You79]. With the development of highly reliable, miniatll.!e, solid-state
`J radio frequency hardware in the 1970s, the wireless communications era was
`born. The recent exponential growth in celiular'. rad.io and personal communica(cid:173)
`tion systems throughout the :world is directly attributable to new technologies of .
`the 1970s, which are mature today. The future. growth of conslimer-based mobile
`and. portable communication systems will be tied more closely to radio spectrum
`allocations and regulatory decisions which 1:1.ffect or support new or extended ser(cid:173)
`vices, as well as to consumer needs and technology advances in the signal pro(cid:173)
`cessing,, access, and network areas.
`The following market penetration data show how wireless communications
`in the consumer sector has grown in popularity. Figure 1.1 illustrates how
`mobile teJephony has penetrated our daily lives · compared with other popular
`inventions of the 20th century. Figure 1.1 is a bit misleading since the curve
`labeled "mobile t~leph~ne" does not include nontelephone mobile radio applica(cid:173)
`tions, su_ch as paging, amatelirradio; dispatch, citizens band (CB), public servfoe,
`cordless phones, or terrestrial microwave radio systems. In fact,. in late 1990,
`licensed noncellular radio systems in the U.S. had over 12 million users, more
`than twice the U.S. cellular user population at that time [FCC91]. Figure i.1
`;:;hows that the first 35 years of mobile telephone saw little market penetration .
`due to high cost and the technological challenges involved, but how, in the past
`decade, cellular telephone has been accepted by consuµiers at rates comparable
`to the television, and the video cassette recorder.
`In 1934, 194 municipal police 'radiO systems and 58 state police statio,ns had
`' agopted amplftude modulation (AM) mobile communication systems for PlJ.blic
`safety in t_he U.S .. It wa:s estimated that 5000 radios were installed in mobiles in
`the mid _ 1930s, and vehicle ignition noise was a major problem for these early
`mobil~ users [N~b~2]. In 1935, Edwin Armstrong demonstrated frequency modu-
`lation (FM) for the first time, and since the late 1930s, FM has been the primary
`modulation technique U:sed for mobile cm;nmunication systems throughout the
`w'orld. World War II accelerat~d the improvements of the world~s manufacturing
`and miniaturization capabilities, and these capabilities were put to use in large
`one-way and two-way· consumer radio and television systems following the war.
`The number of U.S. mobile users climbed from several thousand in 1940 to
`
`.
`
`I
`
`Ex. 1012 / Page 13 of 35
`
`

`

`nunication Systems
`
`pits own coun~
`al communica-
`
`~iod in history,
`tt. Historically,
`has been cou(cid:173)
`' wireless corn(cid:173)
`ed until Bell
`l970s [Nob62],
`~e, solid-state
`:i.tions era was
`al communica(cid:173)
`technolog].es of .
`r-based mobile
`~adio spectrum
`r extended ser~
`Ghe signal pro-
`
`1mmunications
`llustrates how
`·other popular
`ince the curve
`radio applica(cid:173)
`public service,
`,. in late 1990,
`m users, more
`11]. Figure 1.1
`.et pern:itration
`)W, in the past
`es comparable
`
`~e statio.ns had
`ems for public
`:l in mobiles in
`'or these early
`iquency mod11-
`m the primary
`hroughout the
`nanufacturing
`to use in large
`>wing the war.
`nd in 1940 to
`
`Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications
`
`3
`
`100
`
`10
`
`i::
`0
`-~
`!:I
`tl)
`i::
`tl)
`p,.
`~
`· ~
`
`tl)
`
`t;J s
`bO "' E tl) e tl) p...
`
`..............
`··· ··· ··········
`
`· ....... . . ··'····;··
`
`.- .. 1 •.
`... ,
`::: 1::· ..
`
`.. /
`.. /
`
`.. .. .. .. ... .... .. .. .
`. . . .
`.
`TeleP.hC?1.'le . :
`· · : : : Y.e~r; o01.'14°P:4µ:c;tiqi;i =: · . S:77: ~ : : : : : .. · · · · · · · · · .. · · ·
`.. . . . . ... · ... · ........... .
`.. ........ ...... .. , .....
`.... · ..... . . . . . . . .. : .... ..... ..... .
`. . . . . . . . . . . . '
`. . . . . . Af qbll~ T.~1~i>ii9µ~ . .. .. .
`Yeat oflntroduction = 1946
`
`0.1
`
`0
`
`10
`
`20
`
`30
`
`40
`
`50
`
`60
`
`70
`
`Number of years after the first commercial deployment
`
`.
`Figure 1.1
`Figure illustrating the growth (if mobile telephony as compared to other popular inventions of this cen·
`tur_}'.
`·
`86,000 by 1948, 69~,000 by 1958, and about 1.4 million users in 1962 [Nob62].
`The vast majority of mobile users in the 1960s were not connected to the public
`~witched telephone network (PSTN), and 'thus were not able to directly dial tele(cid:173)
`phone numbe;s from their ve4icles. With the boom in CB radio and cordless
`appliances such as garage door openers and telephones, the number of u,sers of
`mobile and portable radio in 1995 was about 100 million, or 37% ofthe U.S. pop(cid:173)
`
`ulation. Research in 1991 estimated between 25 and 40 miliion cordless tele(cid:173)
`
`phones were in use fu the U.S., and by the turn of the century this is certain to
`double [Rap91c]. The number of cellular telephone users grew from 25,000 in
`1'984 to about 16 million in 1994, and ·since then, wireless services having been
`experiencing customer growth rates well in e4cess of 50% per year: By the end of
`1995, there will be nearly 30 million U.S. cellu.,lar users. In the first couple o,f
`, decades of the 21st century, there will be an equal number of wireless and con~
`ventional wireline custo~ers throughout the world!
`
`I
`
`Ex. 1012 / Page 14 of 35
`
`

`

`4
`
`- Ch. 1 • lntro.duction to Wireless Communication Systems
`
`.
`
`f
`
`.
`
`.
`
`.
`
`1.2 Mobile Radiotelephone in the U.S.
`In 1946, the fust public mobile telephone service was introduced in twenty~
`five major American cities. Each system used a single, high-powered transmitter
`and large tower in order to cover distances of over 50 ~ in ~ particular market.
`_ The early FM push-to-talk telephone systems of the late 1940s used 120 kHz of
`RF bandwidth in a half-duplex mode (only· one person on the telephone call could
`talk at a time), even though the actual telephone-grade speech occupies only 3
`·kHz of basebarid spectrµill. The large RF bandwidth was needed beca~se of the
`· difficulty in mass-producing Fight RF filters and low-noise, front-end receiver
`. amplifiers. IIi 1950, the FCC doubled the number of mobile telephone channels
`per market, but with .no Iiew spectrum allocation. Improved technology enabled ·
`the channel bandwidth to be cut in half to 60 kHz: By the mid 1960s, the FM
`bandwidth of voice transmissions was cut to 30 kHz. Thus, there was only a fac-
`tor of 4 increase in spectrum effic.iency due to technology advances from WW II to
`the mid 1960s.' Also in the 195bs and 1960s, automatic channel . trunking was
`introduced and implemented under -the label IMTS (Imvroved Mobile Telephone
`Service). With IMTS, _telephone comp::UUes began offering full duplex, auto-dial,
`auto'-trunking phone systems [Cal88l. However, IMTS quickly became saturated
`in major markets. By 197(), the BellMobile Phone service for the New York City .
`· market (a market of about 10,000,000 people) h_ad only twelve channels and
`could serve only 543 paying customers. There was a waiting list of over 3, 700
`.· people [Cal88], and service was poor due to call blocking and usage over the.few
`channels. IMTS is still in use in the U.S., but is very spectrally inefficient when
`compared to today's U.S. cellular system:
`During the 1950s and 1960s, AT&T Bell Laboratories and other telecom(cid:173)
`mi:iru.cations compa:nies throughout the worid developed the theory and tech(cid:173)
`the concept o( breaking a coverage ~on~
`niques of cellular radiotelephony -
`(market) into small cells, each of which reuse . portions· of the . spectrum to
`increase spectrum ~sage at- the expense of greater system ; infrastructure ·
`[Mac79]. The basic idea of,cellular radio spectrum allocation is similar to that
`used by the FCC when it allocates television stations or radio stations with· dif- .
`ferent channels in a region cifthe country, and then reallocates those same chan(cid:173)
`~(lls .to different stations in a completely different ·part of the co~try. Channels ·
`are only reused when there .is sufficient distance between the transmitters to
`prevent interference. However, cellular relies on reusing the same channels
`within the same market or service area. AT&T proposed the concept ~fa cellular
`mobile system to the FCC ill 1968. Technol.ogy ~asn't available to implement cel(cid:173)
`lular telephony until the late 1970s. In 1983, the FCC finally allocated 666
`duplex channels (40 MHz of spectrum in the 800 MHz band; each channel having
`a one-way bandwidth of 30 kHz for a total spectrum occupancy of 60 kHz for each
`dupiex charu:i'el) for the tU.S. Advanced Mob'ile Phone System (AMPS) _[You79].
`According to FCC rules, each city (called a market) was only allowed to have two
`
`Ex. 1012 / Page 15 of 35
`
`

`

`'
`
`,, _
`
`ununication Systems
`
`Mobile Radiotelephone in the U.S.
`
`5
`
`luced in twenty~
`ired transmitter
`rticular market.
`.ised 120 kHz of
`phone call could.
`occupies only 3
`:l beca~se of the
`mt-end receiver
`'phone channels
`mology enabled
`l 1960s, the FM
`i was only a fac-
`s from WW II to
`3l ·trunking was
`[obile Telephone
`1plex, auto-dial, .
`icame saturated
`3 New York Cit:v
`e channels and
`st of over 3, 700
`1ge over the. few
`inefficient when
`
`l other telecom-
`aeory and tech-
`i coverage ~one
`he . spectrum to
`. 'infrastructure
`similar to that
`cations with. dif-
`1ose same chan-
`untry. Channels
`transmitters to ·
`same channels
`:ept of a cellular
`>implement eel-
`y allocated 666
`. channel having
`· 60 kHz for each
`AMPS) _[You79].
`wed to have two
`
`cellular radio system providers~ thus providing a duopoly within each market
`which would assure some level of compe~ition. As described in Chapters 2 and
`10, the radio channels· we:re split equally between the two carriers. AMPS was
`the first U.S. cellular telephone system, and was depJoyed iri. late 1983 by Amer(cid:173)
`itech in Chicago, IL [Bou91]. In 1989, the FCC granted an additional 166 chan(cid:173)
`nels . (10 MHz) to U.S. cellular service providers to accommodate the rapid
`growth and demand. Figure 1.2 illustrates ~he spectrum currently allocated fqr
`U.S. cellular telephone use. Cellular radio syst~ms operate in an interference(cid:173)
`limited environment and rely on judicious frequency reuse plans (which are a
`function of the market-specific propagation characteristics) and frequency divi(cid:173)
`sion multiple access (FDMA) to maximize capacity. These concepts will ·be cov(cid:173)
`ered in detail in subseque1:1-t chapters of this text.
`
`Reverse Channel .
`
`990 991 . . . 1023 1 2 . . . 799
`
`990 991 ... 1023 1 2 1 • • •
`
`799
`
`~
`
`824-849 MHz
`
`869-894MHz
`
`~
`
`Channel Number
`
`Center Frequency (MHz)
`
`Reverse Channel
`
`· 1 ~ N s 799
`990sNs1023
`
`0.030N + 825.0
`0.030 (N -1023) + 825.0 ·
`
`Forward Channel
`
`0.030N + 870.0
`. 1 s N s 799
`0.030 (N -1023) + 870.0
`990 sN s 1023
`(C,h-annels 800 - 989 are unused)
`
`.
`Figure 1.2
`'Frequency spectrum allocation for the U.S. cellular radio se~ce: Identically labeled channels in.the
`two bands form a forward and reverse channel pair used for duplex communication between the base
`station and mobile.Note that the forward and reverse channels in each pair 'are separated by 45 MHz.
`
`In late 1991, _the first U.S. Digital ·cellular (USDC) system hardware was
`installed in major D.S. cities. The USDC standard (Electronic Industry Associa(cid:173)
`tion Interim Standard IS-54) allows cellular operators to replace 1gracefully some
`single-user analog channels with digital channels which support three users in
`the same 30 kHz bandwidth [EIA90]. In this way, U.S. carriers _ can gradually
`. phase out AMPS as more users accept digital phones. As discussed in Chapters 8
`and io, the capacity improvement offered by USDC is three times that of AMPS,
`because digital modulation {7t/4 differential quadrature ·phase shift keying),
`speech coding, and time division•multiple access (TDMA.) are used in place of
`analog FM and FDMA. Given the rate of digital signal processing advancements,
`
`Ex. 1012 / Page 16 of 35
`
`

`

`6
`
`·Ch . 1 • Introduction to Wireless Communicp.tion· Systems
`
`speech coding technology will increase the capacity to six users per chaml.el in
`the same 30 kHz bandwidth within a few years.
`' A cellular systeni based on code division multipl~ access (CDMA) has been
`developed by Qualcomm, inc. and standardized by the Telecomniunications
`Industry Association (TIA) as an Interim Standard (IS-95). This system supports
`a variable .number of users in 1.25 MHz wide channels using direct sequence
`spread spectrum. While the analog. AMPS system requires that the signal be ~t
`least 18 dB above the co-channel interference to provide acceptable caJ-1 quality,
`CDMA systems can operate at much larger interference levels because of their
`inherent interference resistance properties. The -ability of CDMA to operate with
`a inuch smaller signaMo-noise ratio thl:l.11 conventional n~rowband FM tech(cid:173)
`niques allows CDMA systems to use the same set of frequencies in every cell,
`which provides a large improvement in capacity [Gil91]. Unlike other digital c