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`EflaIIJIIiIIELLIDEII
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`P. Kumar Mehta
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`Paulo J. M. Monteiro
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`Concrete
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`Concrete
`
`Microstructure, Properties, and Materials
`
`P. Kumar Mehta
`Paulo J. M. Monteiro
`Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
`University of California at Berkeley
`
`Third Edition
`
`McGraw-Hill
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`Metromont Ex-1018, p.4
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`

`

`Copyright © 2006 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. Except
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`DOI: 10.1036/0071462899
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`

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`

`This book is dedicated to students, researchers, and
`practicing engineers in the concrete community who
`are faced with the challenges of extending the uses of
`the material to new frontiers of human civilization
`and to make it more durable, sustainable, and
`environment friendly.
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`For more information about this title, click here
`
`Contents
`
`Foreword
`Preface
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`xvii
`xix
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`Part I. Microstructure and Properties of Hardened Concrete
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`Chapter 1. Introduction
`
`Preview
`1.1 Concrete as a Structural Material
`1.2 Components of Modern Concrete
`1.3 Types of Concrete
`1.4 Properties of Hardened Concrete and Their Significance
`1.5 Units of Measurement
`Test Your Knowledge
`Suggestions for Further Study
`
`Chapter 2. Microstructure of Concrete
`
`Preview
`2.1 Definition
`2.2 Significance
`2.3 Complexities
`2.4 Microstructure of the Aggregate Phase
`2.5 Microstructure of the Hydrated Cement Paste
`2.5.1 Solids in the hydrated cement paste
`2.5.2 Voids in the hydrated cement paste
`2.5.3 Water in the hydrated cement paste
`2.5.4 Microstructure-property relationships in the hydrated cement paste
`2.6 Interfacial Transition Zone in Concrete
`2.6.1 Significance of the interfacial transition zone
`2.6.2 Microstructure
`2.6.3 Strength
`2.6.4 Influence of the interfacial transition zone on properties of concrete
`Test Your Knowledge
`References
`Suggestions for Further Study
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`viii
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`Contents
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`Chapter 3. Strength
`
`Preview
`3.1 Definition
`3.2 Significance
`3.3 Strength-Porosity Relationship
`3.4 Failure Modes in Concrete
`3.5 Compressive Strength and Factors Affecting It
`3.5.1 Characteristics and proportions of materials
`3.5.2 Curing conditions
`3.5.3 Testing parameters
`3.6 Behavior of Concrete Under Various Stress States
`3.6.1 Behavior of concrete under uniaxial compression
`3.6.2 Behavior of concrete under uniaxial tension
`3.6.3 Relationship between the compressive and the tensile strength
`3.6.4 Tensile strength of mass concrete
`3.6.5 Behavior of concrete under shearing stress
`3.6.6 Behavior of concrete under biaxial and multiaxial stresses
`Test Your Knowledge
`References
`Suggestions for Further Study
`
`Chapter 4. Dimensional Stability
`
`Preview
`4.1 Types of Deformations and their Significance
`4.2 Elastic Behavior
`4.2.1 Nonlinearity of the stress-strain relationship
`4.2.2 Types of elastic moduli
`4.2.3 Determination of the static elastic modulus
`4.2.4 Poisson’s ratio
`4.2.5 Factors affecting modulus of elasticity
`4.3 Drying Shrinkage and Creep
`4.3.1 Causes
`4.3.2 Effect of loading and humidity conditions on drying shrinkage
`and viscoelastic behavior
`4.3.3 Reversibility
`4.3.4 Factors affecting drying shrinkage and creep
`4.4 Thermal Shrinkage
`4.4.1 Factors affecting thermal stresses
`4.5 Thermal Properties of Concrete
`4.6 Extensibility and Cracking
`Test Your Knowledge
`References
`Suggestions for Further Study
`
`Chapter 5. Durability
`
`Preview
`5.1 Definition
`5.2 Significance
`5.3 General Observations
`5.4 Water as an Agent of Deterioration
`5.4.1 The structure of water
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`Contents
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`5.5 Permeability
`5.5.1 Permeability of hardened cement paste
`5.5.2 Permeability of aggregate
`5.5.3 Permeability of concrete
`5.6 Classification of the Causes of Concrete Deterioration
`5.7 Surface Wear
`5.8 Crystallization of Salts in Pores
`5.9 Frost Action
`5.9.1 Frost action on hardened cement paste
`5.9.2 Frost action on aggregate
`5.9.3 Factors controlling the frost resistance of concrete
`5.9.4 Freezing and salt scaling
`5.10 Effect of Fire
`5.10.1 Effect of high temperature on hydrated cement paste
`5.10.2 Effect of high temperature on aggregate
`5.10.3 Effect of high temperature on concrete
`5.10.4 Behavior of high-strength concrete exposed to fire
`5.11 Deterioration of Concrete by Chemical Reactions
`5.11.1 Hydrolysis of the cement paste components
`5.11.2 Cation-exchange reactions
`5.12 Reactions Involving the Formation of Expansive Products
`5.13 Sulfate Attack
`5.13.1 Chemical reactions in sulfate attack
`5.13.2 Delayed ettringite formation
`5.13.3 Selected cases histories
`5.13.4 Control of sulfate attack
`5.14 Alkali-Aggregate Reaction
`5.14.1 Cements and the aggregate types contributing to the reaction
`5.14.2 Mechanisms of expansion
`5.14.3 Selected case histories
`5.14.4 Control of expansion
`5.15 Hydration of Crystalline MgO and CaO
`5.16 Corrosion of Embedded Steel in Concrete
`5.16.1 Mechanisms involved in concrete deterioration by corrosion of
`embedded steel
`5.16.2 Selected case histories
`5.16.3 Control of corrosion
`5.17 Development of a Holistic Model of Concrete Deterioration
`5.18 Concrete in the Marine Environment
`5.18.1 Theoretical aspects
`5.18.2 Case histories of deteriorated concrete
`5.18.3 Lessons from the case histories
`Test Your Knowledge
`References
`Suggestions for Further Study
`
`Part II. Concrete Materials, Mix Proportioning, and
`Early-Age Properties
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`Chapter 6. Hydraulic Cements
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`Preview
`6.1 Hydraulic and Nonhydraulic Cements
`6.1.1 Chemistry of gypsum and lime cements
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`6.2 Portland Cement
`6.2.1 Manufacturing process
`6.2.2 Chemical composition
`6.2.3 Determination of the compound composition from chemical analysis
`6.2.4 Crystal structure and reactivity of the compounds
`6.2.5 Fineness
`6.3 Hydration of Portland Cement
`6.3.1 Significance
`6.3.2 Mechanism of hydration
`6.3.3 Hydration of the aluminates
`6.3.4 Hydration of the silicates
`6.4 Heat of Hydration
`6.5 Physical Aspects of the Setting and Hardening Process
`6.6 Effect of Cement Characteristics on Strength and Heat of Hydration
`6.7 Types of Portland Cement
`6.8 Special Hydraulic Cements
`6.8.1 Classification and nomenclature
`6.8.2 Blended portland cements
`6.8.3 Expansive cements
`6.8.4 Rapid setting and hardening cements
`6.8.5 Oil-well cements
`6.8.6 White and colored cements
`6.8.7 Calcium aluminate cement
`6.9 Trends in Cement Specifications
`Test Your Knowledge
`References
`Suggestions for Further Study
`
`Chapter 7. Aggregates
`
`Preview
`7.1 Significance
`7.2 Classification and Nomenclature
`7.3 Natural Mineral Aggregates
`7.3.1 Description of rocks
`7.3.2 Description of minerals
`7.4 Lightweight Aggregate
`7.5 Heavyweight Aggregate
`7.6 Blast-Furnace Slag Aggregate
`7.7 Aggregate from Fly Ash
`7.8 Aggregates from Recycled Concrete and Municipal Waste
`7.9 Aggregate Production
`7.10 Aggregate Characteristics and Their Significance
`7.10.1 Density and apparent specific gravity
`7.10.2 Absorption and surface moisture
`7.10.3 Crushing strength, abrasion resistance, and elastic modulus
`7.10.4 Soundness
`7.10.5 Size and grading
`7.10.6 Shape and surface texture
`7.10.7 Deleterious substances
`Test Your Knowledge
`References
`Suggestions for Further Study
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`Contents
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`xi
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`Chapter 8. Admixtures
`
`Preview
`8.1 Significance
`8.2 Nomenclature, Specifications, and Classifications
`8.3 Surface-Active Chemicals
`8.3.1 Nomenclature and chemical composition
`8.3.2 Mechanism of action
`8.3.3 Applications
`8.3.4 Superplasticizers
`8.4 Set-Controlling Chemicals
`8.4.1 Nomenclature and composition
`8.4.2 Mechanism of action
`8.4.3 Applications
`8.5 Mineral Admixtures
`8.5.1 Significance
`8.5.2 Classification
`8.5.3 Natural pozzolanic materials
`8.5.4 By-product materials
`8.5.5 Applications
`8.6 Concluding Remarks
`Test Your Knowledge
`References
`Suggestions for Further Study
`
`Chapter 9. Proportioning Concrete Mixtures
`
`Preview
`9.1 Significance and Objectives
`9.2 General Considerations
`9.2.1 Cost
`9.2.2 Workability
`9.2.3 Strength and durability
`9.2.4 Ideal aggregate grading
`9.3 Specific Principles
`9.3.1 Workability
`9.3.2 Strength
`9.3.3 Durability
`9.4 Procedures
`9.5 Sample Computations
`9.6 ACI Tables in the Metric System
`9.7 Proportioning of High-Strength and High-Performance Concrete Mixtures
`Appendix: Methods of Determining Average Compressive Strength
`from the Specified Strength
`Test Your Knowledge
`References
`Suggestions for Further Study
`
`Chapter 10. Concrete at Early Age
`
`Preview
`10.1 Definitions and Significance
`10.2 Batching, Mixing, and Transport
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`Contents
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`10.3 Placing, Compacting, and Finishing
`10.4 Concrete Curing and Formwork Removal
`10.5 Workability
`10.5.1 Definition and significance
`10.5.2 Measurement
`10.5.3 Factors affecting the workability and their control
`10.6 Slump Loss
`10.6.1 Definitions
`10.6.2 Significance
`10.6.3 Causes and control
`10.7 Segregation and Bleeding
`10.7.1 Definitions and significance
`10.7.2 Measurement
`10.7.3 Causes and control
`10.8 Early Volume Changes
`10.8.1 Definitions and significance
`10.8.2 Causes and control
`10.9 Setting Time
`10.9.1 Definitions and significance
`10.9.2 Measurement and control
`10.10 Temperature of Concrete
`10.10.1 Significance
`10.10.2 Cold-weather concreting
`10.10.3 Hot-weather concreting
`10.11 Testing and Control of Concrete Quality
`10.11.1 Methods and their significance
`10.11.2 Accelerated strength testing
`10.11.3 Core tests
`10.11.4 Quality control charts
`10.12 Early Age Cracking in Concrete
`10.13 Concluding Remarks
`Test Your Knowledge
`References
`Suggestions for Further Study
`
`Chapter 11. Nondestructive Methods
`
`Preview
`11.1 Surface Hardness Methods
`11.2 Penetration Resistance Techniques
`11.3 Pullout Tests
`11.4 Maturity Method
`11.5 Assessment of Concrete Quality from Absorption and Permeability Tests
`11.6 Stress Wave Propagation Methods
`11.6.1 Theoretical concepts of stress wave propagation in solids
`11.6.2 Ultrasonic pulse velocity methods
`11.6.3 Impact methods
`11.6.4 Acoustic emission
`11.7 Electrical Methods
`11.7.1 Resistivity
`11.8 Electrochemical Methods
`11.8.1 Introduction of electrochemistry of reinforced concrete
`11.8.2 Corrosion potential
`11.8.3 Polarization resistance
`11.8.4 Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy
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`Contents
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`xiii
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`11.9 Electromagnetic Methods
`11.9.1 Covermeter
`11.9.2 Ground penetrating radar
`11.9.3 Infrared thermography
`11.10 Tomography of Reinforced Concrete
`11.10.1 X-ray computed tomography
`11.10.2 Collapsing a three-dimensional world
`into a flat two-dimensional image
`11.10.3 Backscattering microwave tomography
`Test Your Knowledge
`References
`Suggestions for Further Readings
`
`Part III. Recent Advances and Concrete in the Future
`
`Chapter 12. Progress in Concrete Technology
`
`Preview
`12.1 Structural Lightweight Concrete
`12.1.1 Definition and specifications
`12.1.2 Mix-proportioning criteria
`12.1.3 Properties
`12.1.4 Applications
`12.2 High-Strength Concrete
`12.2.1 A brief history of development
`12.2.2 Definition
`12.2.3 Significance
`12.2.4 Materials
`12.2.5 Mixture proportioning
`12.2.6 Microstructure
`12.2.7 Properties of fresh and hardened concrete
`12.2.8 High-strength, lightweight aggregate concrete
`12.3 Self-Consolidating Concrete
`12.3.1 Definition and significance
`12.3.2 Brief history of development
`12.3.3 Materials and mixture proportions
`12.3.4 Properties of SCC
`12.3.5 Applications
`12.4 High-Performance Concrete
`12.4.1 A brief history of development
`12.4.2 ACI definition and commentary on high-performance concrete
`12.4.3 Field experience
`12.4.4 Applications
`12.4.5 High-performance, high-volume fly ash concrete
`12.5 Shrinkage-Compensating Concrete
`12.5.1 Definition and the concept
`12.5.2 Significance
`12.5.3 Materials and mix proportions
`12.5.4 Properties
`12.5.5 Applications
`12.6 Fiber-Reinforced Concrete
`12.6.1 Definition and significance
`12.6.2 Toughening mechanism
`12.6.3 Materials and mix proportioning
`12.6.4 Properties
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`xiv
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`Contents
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`12.6.5 Development of ultra-high-performance
`fiber-reinforced composites
`12.6.6 Applications
`12.7. Concrete Containing Polymers
`12. 7.1 Nomenclature and significance
`12.7.2 Polymer concrete
`12.7.3 Latex-modified concrete
`12.7.4 Polymer-impregnated concrete
`12.8 Heavyweight Concrete for Radiation Shielding
`12.8.1 Significance
`12.8.2 Concrete as a shielding material
`12.8.3 Materials and mix proportions
`12.8.4 Important properties
`12.9 Mass Concrete
`12.9.1 Definition and significance
`12.9.2 General considerations
`12.9.3 Materials and mix proportions
`12.9.4 Application of the principles
`12.10 Roller-Compacted Concrete
`12.10.1 Materials and mix proportions
`12.10.2 Laboratory testing
`12.10.3 Properties
`12.10.4 Construction practice
`12.10.5 Applications
`Test Your Knowledge
`References
`Suggestions for Further Study
`
`Chapter 13. Advances in Concrete Mechanics
`
`Preview
`13.1 Elastic Behavior
`13.1.1 Hashin-Shtrikman (H-S) bounds
`13.2 Viscoelasticity
`13.2.1 Basic rheological models
`13.2.2 Generalized rheological models
`13.2.3 Time-variable rheological models
`13.2.4 Superposition principle and integral representation
`13.2.5 Mathematical expressions for creep
`13.2.6 Methods for predicting creep and shrinkage
`13.2.7 Shrinkage
`13.3 Temperature Distribution in Mass Concrete
`13.3.1 Heat transfer analysis
`13.3.2 Initial condition
`13.3.3 Boundary conditions
`13.3.4 Finite element formulation
`13.3.5 Examples of application
`13.3.6 Case study: construction of the cathedral of our lady of
`the angels in California, USA
`13.4 Fracture Mechanics
`13.4.1 Linear elastic fracture mechanics
`13.4.2 Concrete fracture mechanics
`13.4.3 Fracture process zone
`Test Your Knowledge
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`References
`Suggestions for Further Study
`
`Chapter 14. The Future Challenges in Concrete Technology
`
`Preview
`14.1 Forces Shaping Our World—an Overview
`14.2 Future Demand for Concrete
`14.3 Advantages of Concrete over Steel Structures
`14.3.1 Engineering considerations
`14.4 Environmental Considerations
`14.5 Concrete Durability and Sustainability
`14.6 Is There a Light at the End of the Tunnel?
`14.7 Technology for Sustainable Development
`References
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`Index
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`Contents
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`Foreword
`
`In recent years, a number of books on concrete technology have become available
`for use by students in civil engineering. Most of these books deal with the
`subject in a traditional manner, i.e., describing the characteristics of concrete-
`making materials and engineering properties of concrete without adequate ref-
`erence to the material science controlling the properties. The previous editions
`of the text on concrete technology by Professors P. K. Mehta and Paulo Monteiro,
`both of the prestigious University of California at Berkeley, adopted the
`microstructure-property relationship approach commonly used in all materials
`science books to provide scientific explanations for strength, durability, and
`other engineering properties of concrete. This approach was widely appreci-
`ated, which is evident from the fact that the book has been translated and pub-
`lished in several foreign languages.
`Now, the authors have brought out the third edition, which, while retaining
`the uniqueness and simplicity of earlier editions, extends the coverage to several
`topics of great importance for both students and professional engineers inter-
`ested in concrete. The paramount importance of making durable concrete that
`is essential for sustainable development of the concrete industry is a hallmark
`of this unique book. The chapter on durability leads the reader in a systemic
`manner through the primary causes of deterioration of concrete and their con-
`trol, and concludes with a holistic approach for building highly durable concrete
`structures. The authors are to be commended for successfully shifting the focus
`from strength to durability of concrete.
`The third edition of the book also contains a comprehensive chapter on non-
`destructive testing methods and a thoroughly revised chapter on recent advance-
`ments in concrete technology including high-performance concrete, high-volume
`fly ash concrete, and self-consolidating concrete. Another unique feature of the
`text is the inclusion of approximately 250 line drawings and numerous photo-
`graphs to illustrate the topics discussed. The book is splendidly designed so that
`it can be used equally by undergraduate and graduate students, and structural
`designers and engineers. My recommendation to those who may be searching
`
`Copyright © 2006 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.
`
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`Metromont Ex-1018, p.19
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`xviii
`
`Foreword
`
`for an outstanding book on modern concrete technology, either for classroom
`teaching or for professional use, is to search no more.
`
`V. Mohan Malhotra
`Scientist Emeritus
`Canada Center for Mineral and Energy Technology
`Ottawa, Canada
`
`www.engbookspdf.com
`
`Metromont Ex-1018, p.20
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`

`

`Preface
`
`There is a direct relationship between population and urbanization. During the
`last 100 years, the world population has grown from 1.5 to 6 billion and nearly
`3 billion people now live in and around the cities. Seventeen of the 20 megacities,
`each with a population of 10 million or more, happen to be situated in develop-
`ing countries where enormous quantities of materials are required for the con-
`struction of housing, factories, commercial buildings, drinking water and sanitation
`facilities, dams and canals, roads, bridges, tunnels, and other infrastructure. And
`the principal material of construction is portland cement concrete. By volume, the
`largest manufactures product in the world today is concrete. Naturally, design and
`construction engineers need to know more about concrete than about other mate-
`rials of construction.
`This book is not intended to be an exhaustive treatise on concrete. Written
`primarily for the use of students in civil engineering, it covers a wide spectrum
`of topics in modern concrete technology that should be of considerable interest
`to practicing engineers. For instance, to reduce the environmental impact of con-
`crete, roles of pozzolanic and cementitious by-products as well as superplasti-
`cizing admixtures in producing highly durable products are thoroughly covered.
`One of the objectives of this book is to present the art and science of concrete
`in a simple, clear, and scientific manner. Properties of engineering materials are
`governed by their microstructure. Therefore, it is highly desirable that struc-
`tural designers and engineers interested in the properties of concrete become
`familiar with the microstructure of the material. In spite of apparent simplic-
`ity of the technology of producing concrete, the microstructure of the product is
`highly complex. Concrete contains a heterogeneous distribution of many solid
`compounds as well as voids of varying shapes and sizes that may be completely
`or partially filled with alkaline solution.
`Compared to other engineering materials like steel, plastics, and ceramics,
`the microstructure of concrete is not a static property of the material. This is
`because two of the three components of the microstructure, namely, the bulk
`cement paste and the interfacial transition zone between aggregate and cement
`paste change with time. In fact, the word concrete comes from the Latin term
`concretus, which means to grow. The strength of concrete depends on the volume of
`the cement hydration products that continue to form for several years, resulting
`
`Copyright © 2006 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.
`
`xix
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`Metromont Ex-1018, p.21
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`xx
`
`Preface
`
`in a gradual enhancement of strength. Depending on the exposure to environ-
`ment, solutions penetrating from the surface into the interior of concrete some-
`times dissolve the cement hydration products causing an increase in porosity
`which reduces the strength and durability of concrete; conversely, when the
`products of interaction recrystallize in the voids and microcracks, it may enhance
`the strength and durability of the material. This explains why analytical
`methods of material science that work well in modeling and predicting the
`behavior of microstructurally stable and homogeneous materials do not seem
`to be satisfactory in the case of concrete structures.
`In regard to organization of the subject matter, the first part of this three-part
`book is devoted to hardened concrete microstructure and properties, such as
`strength, modulus of elasticity, drying shrinkage, thermal shrinkage, creep,
`tensile strain capacity, permeability, and durability to various processes of
`degradation. Definition of each property, its significance and origin, and factors
`controlling it are set forth in a clear manner. The second part of the book deals
`with concrete-making materials and concrete processing. Separate chapters
`contain state-of-the-art reviews on composition and properties of cements, aggre-
`gates, and admixtures. There are also separate chapters on proportioning of
`concrete mixtures, properties of concrete at early ages, and nondestructive test
`methods. The third part covers special topics in concrete technology. One chap-
`ter is devoted to composition, properties, and applications of special types of con-
`crete, such as lightweight concrete, high-strength concrete, high-performance
`concrete, self-consolidating concrete, shrinkage-compensating concrete, fiber-
`reinforced concrete, concretes containing polymers, and mass concrete. A separate
`chapter deals with advances of concrete mechanics covering composite models,
`creep and shrinkage, thermal stresses, and fracture of concrete. The final chap-
`ter contains some reflections on current challenges to concrete as the most widely
`used building material, with special emphasis on ecological considerations.
`A special feature of the book is the inclusion of numerous unique diagrams,
`photographs, and summary tables intended to serve as teaching aids. New terms
`are indicated in italics and are clearly defined. Each chapter begins with a pre-
`view of the contents, and ends with a self-test and a guide for further reading.
`
`Acknowledgments
`
`This thoroughly revised third edition of the book including the companion CD
`would not have been possible without the help and cooperation of many friends
`and professional colleagues. The authors thank all of them most sincerely.
`
`Paul Acker for insightful comments on autogenous shrinkage
`Hakan Atahan for assistance in typesetting and proofreading.
`Paulo Barbosa for digitizing many of the graphs
`Dale Bentz for the ITZ computer simulation
`Luigi Biolzi for giving us many useful examples of European construction
`
`www.engbookspdf.com
`
`Metromont Ex-1018, p.22
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`

`

`Preface
`
`xxi
`
`Joshua Blunt for the final proofreading
`Nick Carino for reviewing the chapter on nondestructive tests
`Mario Collepardi for allowing us to use clips of this video on durability
`of concrete
`Harvey Haynes for the photographs on physical sulfate attack
`Harold Hirth for his help with computer animation
`Claire Johnson for careful editing of the manuscript
`Carmel Joliquer for the superplasticizer figures
`David Lange for permission to use clips of videos
`Mauro Letizia for the Powerpoint layout
`Mohan Malhotra for permission to use parts of CANMET videos on flyash
`and NDT
`Mauricio Mancio for the final proofreading
`Jose Marques Filho for the RCC video
`Maryanne McDarby for the continuous support with the editing process
`Ana Christina and Lucila Monteiro for help with tables and layout
`Joclyn Norris for dedicated work with illustrations and layout of the CD
`Patricia Pedrozo for dedicated work in compressing the videos
`G. Tognon for allowing us to use parts of the Roman concrete video
`David Trejo for the fresh concrete videos
`
`P. Kumar Mehta
`
`Paulo J. M. Monteiro
`University of California at Berkeley
`
`www.engbookspdf.com
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`Metromont Ex-1018, p.23
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`Part
`
`I
`
`Microstructure and Properties
`of Hardened Concrete
`
`Copyright © 2006 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.
`
`www.engbookspdf.com
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`Metromont Ex-1018, p.25
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`Chapter1
`
`Introduction
`
`Preview
`
`This chapter describes important applications of concrete, and examines the rea-
`sons that made concrete the most widely used structural material in the world
`today. The principal components of modern concrete are identified and defined.
`A brief description of the major concrete types is given.
`For the benefit of beginning students, an introduction to important proper-
`ties of engineering materials, with special reference to concrete, is also included
`in this chapter. The properties discussed are strength, elastic modulus, tough-
`ness, dimensional stability, and durability.
`
`1.1 Concrete as a Structural Material
`
`In an article published by the Scientific American in April 1964, S. Brunauer
`and L.E. Copeland, two eminent scientists in the field of cement and concrete,
`wrote:
`
`The most widely used construction material is concrete, commonly made by mixing
`portland cement with sand, crushed rock, and water. Last year in the U.S. 63 mil-
`lion tons of portland cement were converted into 500 million tons of concrete, five
`times the consumption by weight of steel. In many countries the ratio of concrete con-
`sumption to steel consumption exceeds ten to one. The total world consumption of
`concrete last year is estimated at three billion tons, or one ton for every living human
`being. Man consumes no material except water in such tremendous quantities.
`
`Today, the rate at which concrete is used is much higher than it was 40 years
`ago. It is estimated that the present consumption of concrete in the world is of
`the order of 11 billion metric tonnes every year.
`Concrete is neither as strong nor as tough as steel, so why is it the most
`widely used engineering material? There are at least three primary reasons.
`
`Copyright © 2006 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.
`
`3
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`www.engbookspdf.com
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`Metromont Ex-1018, p.27
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`

`4
`
`Microstructure and Properties of Hardened Concrete
`
`Itaipu Dam, Brazil. (Photograph courtesy of Itaipu Binacional, Brazil.)
`Figure 1-1
`This spectacular 12,600 MW hydroelectric project at Itaipu, estimated cost $18.5
`billion, includes a 180-m high hollow-gravity concrete dam at the Paraná River on
`the Brazil-Paraguay border. By 1982 twelve types of concrete, totaling 12.5 million
`cubic meters, had been used in the construction of the dam, piers of diversion struc-
`ture, and the precast beams, slabs, and other structural elements for the power
`plant.
`The designed compressive strengths of concrete ranged from as low as 14 MPa at
`1 year for mass concrete for the dam to as high as 35 MPa at 28 days for precast con-
`crete members. All coarse aggregate and about 70 percent of the fine aggregate was
`obtained by crushing basalt rock available at the site. T