HANDBOOK OF PHYSICAL
`VAPOR DEPOSITION (PVD)
`PROCESSING
`Film Formation, Adhesion, Surface
`Preparation and Contamination Control
`
`by
`
`Donald M. Mattox
`
`Society of Vacuum Coaters
`Albuquerque, New Mexico
`
`np NOYES PUBLICATIONS
`
`Westwood, New Jersey, U.S.A.
`
`ClearCorrect Exhibit 1046, Page 1 of 943
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`

`

`Copyright © 1998 by Noyes Publications
`No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized
`in any form or by any means, electronic or
`mechanical, including photocopying, recording or
`by any information storage and retrieval system,
`without permission in writing from the Publisher.
`Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 97-44664
`ISBN: 0-8155-1422-0
`Printed in the United States
`
`Published in the United States of America by
`Noyes Publications
`369 Fairview Avenue, Westwood, New Jersey 07675
`
`10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
`
`Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
`
`Mattox, D. M.
`Handbook of physical vapor deposition (PVD) processing / by
`Donald M. Mattox.
`p.
`cm.
`Includes bibliographical references and index.
`ISBN 0-8155-1422-0
`1. Vapor-plating--Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title.
`TS695.M38 1998
`671.7' 35--dc21
`
`97-44664
`CIP
`
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`Dedication
`
`To my wife
`Vivienne
`
`Without Vivienne’s constant support, encouragement, and
`editorial assistance, this book would not exist. Her wide
`spectrum of contacts within the vacuum equipment and
`PVD technology industries has made the accumulation of
`information in some sections of this book possible.
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`NOTICE
`
`To the best of our knowledge the information in this publication is
`accurate; however the Publisher does not assume any responsibil-
`ity or liability for the accuracy or completeness of, or consequences
`arising from, such information. This book is intended for informational
`purposes only. Mention of trade names or commercial products does
`not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use by the Publish-
`er. Final determination of the suitability of any information or
`product for use contemplated by any user, and the manner of that
`use, is the sole responsibility of the user. We recommend that
`anyone intending to rely on any recommendation of materials or
`procedures mentioned in this publication should satisfy himself as
`to such suitability, and that he can meet all applicable safety and
`health standards.
`
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`Preface
`
`The motivation for writing this book was that there was no single
`source of information which covers all aspects of Physical Vapor Deposition
`(PVD) processing in a comprehensive manner. The properties of thin films
`deposited by PVD processes depend on a number of factors (see Sec. 1.2.2),
`and each must be considered when developing a reproducible process and
`obtaining a high product throughput and yield from the production line.
`This book covers all aspects of PVD process technology from
`characterizing and preparing the substrate material, through the deposition
`process and film characterization, to post deposition processing. The
`emphasis of the book is on the aspects of the process flow that are critical to
`reproducible deposition of films that have the desired properties.
`The book covers both neglected subjects, such as film adhesion,
`substrate surface characterization, and the external processing environment,
`and widely discussed subjects, such as vacuum technology, film properties
`and the fundamentals of individual deposition processes. In this book, the
`author relates these subjects to the practical issues that arise in PVD
`processing, such as contamination control and substrate property effects on
`film growth, which are often not discussed or even mentioned in the literature.
`By bringing these subjects together in one book, the author has made it
`possible for the reader to better understand the interrelationships between
`various aspects of the processing and the resulting film properties. The
`author draws upon his long experience in developing PVD processes,
`teaching short courses on PVD processing, to not only present the basics but
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`Preface vii
`
`also to provide useful hints for avoiding problems and solving problems
`when they arise. Some examples of actual problems and solutions (“war
`stories”) are provided as foot notes throughout the text. The organization of
`the text allows a reader who is already knowledgeable in the subject to scan
`through a section and find subjects that are of particular interest. Extensive
`references allow the reader to pursue subjects in greater detail if so desired.
`An important aspect of the book is the useful reference material
`presented in the Appendices. A glossary of over 2500 terms and acronyms
`will be especially useful to those individuals that are just entering the field and
`those who are not fully conversant with the English language. Many of the
`terms are colloquialisms that are used in the field of Surface Engineering.
`The author realizes that covering this subject is a formidable task,
`particularly for one person, and that this effort is incomplete at best. He
`would like to elicit comments, corrections, and additions, which may be
`incorporated in a later edition of the book. In particular, he would like to elicit
`“war stories” of actual problems and solutions. Credit will be given for those
`which are used. Please contact the author at (ph.) 505-856-6810, (fax) 505-
`856-6716, or e-mail donmattox@svc.org.
`
`Albuquerque, New Mexico
`August, 1997
`
`Donald M. Mattox
`
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`Table of Contents
`
`ix
`
`Table of Contents
`
`1.1.2
`
`1.2
`
`1.3
`
`1 Introduction .......................................................................... 29
`1.1
`SURFACE ENGINEERING .......................................................... 29
`1.1.1
`Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) Processes.................. 31
`Vacuum Deposition .................................................... 32
`Sputter Deposition ...................................................... 33
`Arc Vapor Deposition ................................................. 34
`Ion Plating................................................................... 34
`Non-PVD Thin Film Atomistic Deposition Processes .... 35
`Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) and PECVD ...... 35
`Electroplating, Electroless Plating and Displacement
`Plating...................................................................... 36
`Chemical Reduction ................................................... 37
`Applications of Thin Films.............................................. 38
`1.1.3
`THIN FILM PROCESSING ........................................................... 39
`1.2.1
`Stages of Fabrication ....................................................... 39
`1.2.2
`Factors that Affect Film Properties ................................. 40
`1.2.3
`Scale-Up and Manufacturabilty ...................................... 43
`PROCESS DOCUMENTATION ................................................... 44
`1.3.1
`Process Specifications ..................................................... 44
`Laboratory/Engineering Notebook ............................. 46
`Manufacturing Process Instructions (MPIs).................... 46
`1.3.2
`Travelers .......................................................................... 47
`1.3.3
`Equipment and Calibration Logs..................................... 48
`1.3.4
`Commercial/Military Standards and Specifications ........ 48
`1.3.5
`SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS ...................... 50
`
`1.4
`
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`Handbook of Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) Processing
`
`1.5
`
`UNITS............................................................................................. 50
`1.5.1
`Temperature Scales ......................................................... 51
`1.5.2
`Energy Units .................................................................... 51
`1.5.3
`Prefixes ............................................................................ 51
`1.5.4
`Greek Alphabet ............................................................... 52
`SUMMARY .................................................................................... 52
`1.6
`FURTHER READING ................................................................................ 53
`REFERENCES ............................................................................................ 54
`
`2.3
`
`2.4
`
`2 Substrate (“Real”) Surfaces and Surface Modification .... 56
`2.1
`INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 56
`2.2
`MATERIALS AND FABRICATION ............................................ 57
`2.2.1
`Metals .............................................................................. 57
`2.2.2
`Ceramics and Glasses ...................................................... 59
`2.2.3
`Polymers .......................................................................... 61
`ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND ATOM-PARTICLE
`INTERACTIONS ........................................................................ 63
`2.3.1
`Atomic Structure and Nomenclature ............................... 63
`2.3.2
`Excitation and Atomic Transitions .................................. 64
`2.3.3
`Chemical Bonding ........................................................... 66
`2.3.4
`Probing and Detected Species ......................................... 67
`CHARACTERIZATION OF SURFACES AND
`NEAR-SURFACE REGIONS ..................................................... 69
`2.4.1
`Elemental (Chemical) Compositional Analysis .............. 71
`Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) .......................... 72
`Ion Scattering Spectroscopy (ISS and LEISS) ........... 73
`Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) ................ 75
`Phase Composition and Microstructure .......................... 75
`X-ray Diffraction ........................................................ 75
`Electron Diffraction (RHEED, TEM) ........................ 76
`Molecular Composition and Chemical Bonding ............. 76
`Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy ......................................... 76
`X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) or Electron
`Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis (ESCA) ............ 79
`Surface Morphology ........................................................ 80
`Contacting Surface Profilometry ................................ 82
`Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM) and Atomic
`Force Microscopy (AFM) ....................................... 83
`Interferometry ............................................................. 84
`Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy (SNOM) and
`Photon Tunneling Microscopy (PTM) .................... 84
`Scatterometry .............................................................. 85
`Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) ....................... 85
`Replication TEM ........................................................ 85
`Adsorption—Gases and Liquids ................................. 86
`
`2.4.2
`
`2.4.3
`
`2.4.4
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`xi
`
`2.5
`
`2.6
`
`2.6.2
`
`2.6.3
`
`Mechanical and Thermal Properties of Surfaces............. 87
`2.4.5
`Surface Energy ................................................................ 88
`2.4.6
`Acidic and Basic Properties of Surfaces ......................... 90
`2.4.7
`BULK PROPERTIES ..................................................................... 91
`2.5.1
`Outgassing ....................................................................... 91
`2.5.2
`Outdiffusion .................................................................... 92
`MODIFICATION OF SUBSTRATE SURFACES ........................ 92
`2.6.1
`Surface Morphology........................................................ 92
`Smoothing the Surface................................................ 92
`Roughening Surfaces .................................................. 95
`Vicinal (Stepped) Surfaces ....................................... 100
`Surface Hardness ........................................................... 100
`Hardening by Diffusion Processes ........................... 100
`Hardening by Mechanical Working ......................... 102
`Hardening by Ion Implantation ................................ 102
`Strengthening of Surfaces ............................................. 103
`Thermal Stressing ..................................................... 103
`Ion Implantation ....................................................... 104
`Chemical Strengthening ........................................... 104
`Surface Composition ..................................................... 104
`Inorganic Basecoats .................................................. 105
`Oxidation .................................................................. 105
`Surface Enrichment and Depletion ........................... 107
`Phase Composition ................................................... 107
`Surface “Activation” ..................................................... 108
`Plasma Activation ..................................................... 108
`Corona Activation..................................................... 109
`Flame Activation ...................................................... 110
`Electronic Charge Sites and Dangling Bonds........... 110
`Surface Layer Removal ............................................ 111
`Surface “Sensitization”.................................................. 111
`2.6.6
`SUMMARY .................................................................................. 112
`2.7
`FURTHER READING .............................................................................. 112
`REFERENCES .......................................................................................... 113
`
`2.6.4
`
`2.6.5
`
`3 The Low-Pressure Gas and Vacuum Processing
`Environment ....................................................................... 127
`3.1
`INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 127
`3.2
`GASES AND VAPORS ............................................................... 128
`3.2.1
`Gas Pressure and Partial Pressure ................................. 129
`Pressure Measurement .............................................. 131
`Identification of Gaseous Species............................. 135
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`Handbook of Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) Processing
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`3.2.2
`
`3.5.3
`3.5.4
`3.5.5
`
`Molecular Motion .......................................................... 136
`Molecular Velocity ................................................... 136
`Mean Free Path ......................................................... 136
`Collision Frequency .................................................. 136
`Energy Transfer from Collision
`and “Thermalization” ............................................ 137
`Gas Flow ........................................................................ 138
`3.2.3
`Ideal Gas Law ................................................................ 140
`3.2.4
`Vapor Pressure and Condensation ................................. 141
`3.2.5
`GAS-SURFACE INTERACTIONS ............................................. 143
`3.3.1
`Residence Time ............................................................. 143
`3.3.2
`Chemical Interactions .................................................... 144
`VACUUM ENVIRONMENT ...................................................... 146
`3.4.1
`Origin of Gases and Vapors .......................................... 147
`Residual Gases and Vapors ...................................... 147
`Desorption ................................................................ 148
`Outgassing ................................................................ 149
`Outdiffusion .............................................................. 151
`Permeation Through Materials ................................. 151
`Vaporization of Materials ......................................... 152
`Real and Virtual Leaks ............................................. 153
`“Brought-in” Contamination .................................... 154
`VACUUM PROCESSING SYSTEMS ........................................ 155
`3.5.1
`System Design Considerations and “Trade-Offs” ......... 157
`3.5.2
`Processing Chamber Configurations ............................. 157
`Direct-Load System .................................................. 159
`Load-Lock System .................................................... 159
`In-Line System ......................................................... 161
`Cluster Tool System ................................................. 162
`Web Coater (Roll Coater) ......................................... 162
`Air-To-Air Strip Coater ............................................ 163
`Conductance .................................................................. 163
`Pumping Speed and Mass Throughput ......................... 165
`Fixturing and Tooling .................................................... 166
`Substrate Handling ................................................... 171
`Feedthroughs and Accessories ...................................... 171
`Liners and Shields ......................................................... 171
`Gas Manifolding ............................................................ 172
`Mass Flow Meters and Controllers ........................... 173
`Fail-Safe Designs .......................................................... 175
`“What-If” Game ....................................................... 178
`VACUUM PUMPING .................................................................. 179
`3.6.1
`Mechanical Pumps ........................................................ 179
`Oil-Sealed Mechanical Pumps .................................. 180
`Dry Pumps ................................................................ 181
`Diaphragm Pumps .................................................... 182
`
`3.5.6
`3.5.7
`3.5.8
`
`3.5.9
`
`3.3
`
`3.4
`
`3.5
`
`3.6
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`3.6.2
`
`3.6.3
`
`3.7
`
`Momentum Transfer Pumps .......................................... 182
`Diffusion Pumps ....................................................... 182
`Turbomolecular Pumps ............................................ 185
`Molecular Drag Pumps ............................................. 186
`Capture Pumps .............................................................. 186
`Sorption (Adsorption) Pumps ................................... 186
`Cryopanels ................................................................ 187
`Cryopumps................................................................ 188
`Getter Pumps ............................................................ 190
`Hybrid Pumps ................................................................ 191
`3.6.4
`VACUUM AND PLASMA COMPATIBLE MATERIALS ....... 191
`3.7.1
`Metals ............................................................................ 192
`Stainless Steel ........................................................... 193
`Low-Carbon (Mild) Steel ......................................... 196
`Aluminum ................................................................. 196
`Copper ...................................................................... 198
`Hardenable Metals .................................................... 198
`Ceramic and Glass Materials ......................................... 198
`3.7.2
`Polymers ........................................................................ 199
`3.7.3
`ASSEMBLY ................................................................................. 199
`3.8.1
`Permanent Joining ......................................................... 199
`3.8.2
`Non-Permanent Joining ................................................. 200
`3.8.3
`Lubricants for Vacuum Application.............................. 203
`EVALUATING VACUUM SYSTEM ...............................................
`PERFORMANCE ......................................................................... 204
`3.9.1
`System Records ............................................................. 204
`PURCHASING A VACUUM SYSTEM FOR PVD
`PROCESSING ........................................................................... 205
`CLEANING OF VACUUM SURFACES .................................... 208
`3.11.1
`Stripping ........................................................................ 208
`3.11.2
`Cleaning......................................................................... 209
`3.11.3
`In Situ “Conditioning” of Vacuum Surfaces ................. 210
`SYSTEM-RELATED CONTAMINATION ................................ 212
`3.12.1
`Particulate Contamination ............................................. 212
`3.12.2 Vapor Contamination .................................................... 215
`Water Vapor ............................................................. 215
`3.12.3 Gaseous Contamination................................................. 216
`3.12.4
`Changes with Use .......................................................... 216
`PROCESS-RELATED CONTAMINATION ............................... 216
`TREATMENT OF SPECIFIC MATERIALS .............................. 217
`3.14.1
`Stainless Steel ................................................................ 217
`3.14.2 Aluminum Alloys .......................................................... 218
`3.14.3
`Copper ........................................................................... 220
`SAFETY ASPECTS OF VACUUM TECHNOLOGY ................ 221
`3.15
`SUMMARY .................................................................................. 222
`3.16
`FURTHER READING .............................................................................. 222
`REFERENCES .......................................................................................... 225
`
`3.8
`
`3.9
`
`3.10
`
`3.11
`
`3.12
`
`3.13
`3.14
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`Handbook of Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) Processing
`
`4 The Low-Pressure Plasma Processing Environment ...... 237
`4.1
`INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 237
`4.2
`THE PLASMA ............................................................................. 239
`4.2.1
`Plasma Chemistry .......................................................... 239
`Excitation .................................................................. 239
`Ionization by Electrons ............................................. 241
`Dissociation .............................................................. 242
`Penning Ionization and Excitation............................ 242
`Charge Exchange ...................................................... 243
`Photoionization and Excitation ................................. 243
`Ion-Electron Recombination .................................... 243
`Plasma Polymerization ............................................. 243
`Unique Species ......................................................... 244
`Plasma “Activation” ................................................. 244
`Crossections and Threshold Energies ....................... 244
`Thermalization .......................................................... 244
`Plasma Properties and Regions ..................................... 245
`Plasma Generation Region ....................................... 246
`Afterglow or “Downstream” Plasma Region ........... 246
`Measuring Plasma Parameters .................................. 246
`PLASMA-SURFACE INTERACTIONS ..................................... 247
`4.3.1
`Sheath Potentials and Self-Bias ..................................... 247
`4.3.2
`Applied Bias Potentials ................................................. 248
`4.3.3
`Particle Bombardment Effects ....................................... 248
`4.3.4
`Gas Diffusion into Surfaces .......................................... 249
`CONFIGURATIONS FOR GENERATING PLASMAS............. 249
`4.4.1
`Electron Sources ............................................................ 249
`4.4.2
`Electric and Magnetic Field Effects .............................. 250
`4.4.3
`DC Plasma Discharges .................................................. 252
`Pulsed DC ................................................................. 257
`Magnetically Confined Plasmas .................................... 258
`Balanced Magnetrons ............................................... 258
`Unbalanced Magnetrons ........................................... 261
`AC Plasma Discharges .................................................. 262
`Radio Frequency (rf) Capacitively-Coupled Diode
`Discharge .................................................................. 262
`Arc Plasmas ................................................................... 264
`4.4.7
`Laser-Induced Plasmas .................................................. 265
`4.4.8
`ION AND PLASMA SOURCES.................................................. 265
`4.5.1
`Plasma Sources .............................................................. 265
`End Hall Plasma Source ........................................... 266
`Hot Cathode Plasma Source ..................................... 266
`Capacitively Coupled rf Plasma Source ................... 267
`Electron Cyclotron Resonance (ECR) Plasma Source 268
`
`4.4.5
`4.4.6
`
`4.2.2
`
`4.4.4
`
`4.3
`
`4.4
`
`4.5
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`4.6
`
`Inductively Coupled rf Plasma (ICP) Source ........... 268
`Helicon Plasma Source ............................................. 271
`Hollow Cathode Plasma Source ............................... 271
`Ion Sources (Ion Guns) ................................................. 271
`4.5.2
`Electron Sources ............................................................ 272
`4.5.3
`PLASMA PROCESSING SYSTEMS .......................................... 273
`4.6.1
`Gas Distribution and Injection ...................................... 274
`Gas Composition and Flow, Flow Meters, and Flow
`Controllers ..................................................................... 275
`Electrodes ...................................................................... 275
`4.6.2
`Corrosion ....................................................................... 276
`4.6.3
`Pumping Plasma Systems.............................................. 276
`4.6.4
`PLASMA-RELATED CONTAMINATION ................................ 276
`4.7.1
`Desorbed Contmination................................................. 277
`4.7.2
`Sputtered Contamination ............................................... 277
`4.7.3
`Arcing ............................................................................ 277
`4.7.4
`Vapor Phase Nucleation ................................................ 278
`4.7.5
`Cleaning Plasma Processing Systems ........................... 278
`SOME SAFETY ASPECTS OF PLASMA ........................................
`PROCESSING .............................................................................. 279
`SUMMARY .................................................................................. 279
`4.9
`FURTHER READING .............................................................................. 280
`REFERENCES .......................................................................................... 281
`
`4.7
`
`4.8
`
`5.3
`
`5 Vacuum Evaporation and Vacuum Deposition ............... 288
`5.1
`INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 288
`5.2
`THERMAL VAPORIZATION .................................................... 289
`5.2.1
`Vaporization of Elements .............................................. 289
`Vapor Pressure .......................................................... 289
`Flux Distribution of Vaporized Material .................. 292
`Vaporization of Alloys and Mixtures ............................ 295
`5.2.2
`Vaporization of Compounds ......................................... 296
`5.2.3
`Polymer Evaporation ..................................................... 296
`5.2.4
`THERMAL VAPORIZATION SOURCES ................................. 296
`5.3.1
`Single Charge Sources................................................... 297
`Resistively Heated Sources....................................... 297
`Electron Beam Heated Sources ................................ 301
`Crucibles ................................................................... 304
`Radio Frequency (rf) Heated Sources ...................... 305
`Sublimation Sources ................................................. 305
`Replenishing (Feeding) Sources.................................... 306
`Baffle Sources ............................................................... 307
`Beam and Confined Vapor Sources .............................. 307
`Flash Evaporation .......................................................... 307
`Radiant Heating ............................................................. 308
`
`5.3.2
`5.3.3
`5.3.4
`5.3.5
`5.3.6
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`5.4
`
`5.5
`
`5.6
`
`5.7
`
`TRANSPORT OF VAPORIZED MATERIAL ............................ 309
`5.4.1
`Masks ............................................................................. 309
`5.4.2
`Gas Scattering ................................................................ 309
`CONDENSATION OF VAPORIZED MATERIAL .................... 310
`5.5.1
`Condensation Energy .................................................... 310
`5.5.2
`Deposition of Alloys and Mixtures ............................... 311
`5.5.3
`Deposition of Compounds from Compound Source
`Material ..................................................................... 313
`Some Properties of Vacuum Deposited Thin Films ...... 314
`5.5.4
`MATERIALS FOR EVAPORATION ......................................... 314
`5.6.1
`Purity and Packaging ..................................................... 314
`Purchase Specifications ............................................ 315
`Handling of Source Materials ....................................... 315
`5.6.2
`VACUUM DEPOSITION CONFIGURATIONS ........................ 315
`5.7.1
`Deposition Chambers .................................................... 316
`5.7.2
`Fixtures and Tooling ..................................................... 316
`5.7.3
`Shutters .......................................................................... 317
`5.7.4
`Substrate Heating and Cooling ...................................... 318
`5.7.5
`Liners and Shields ......................................................... 318
`5.7.6
`In Situ Cleaning ............................................................. 319
`5.7.7
`Getter Pumping Configurations .................................... 319
`PROCESS MONITORING AND CONTROL ............................. 319
`5.8.1
`Substrate Temperature Monitoring ............................... 320
`5.8.2
`Deposition Monitors—Rate and Total Mass ................. 320
`5.8.3
`Vaporization Source Temperature Monitoring ............. 322
`5.8.4
`In Situ Film Property Monitoring .................................. 322
`CONTAMINATION FROM THE VAPORIZATION SOURCE 323
`5.9.1
`Contamination from the Vaporization Source .............. 323
`5.9.2
`Contamination from the Deposition System ................. 325
`5.9.3
`Contamination from Substrates ..................................... 325
`5.9.4
`Contamination from Deposited Film Material .............. 325
`5.10 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF VACUUM
`DEPOSITION ............................................................................ 326
`SOME APPLICATIONS OF VACUUM DEPOSITION ............. 327
`5.11.1
`Freestanding Structures ................................................. 327
`5.11.2 Graded Composition Structures .................................... 328
`5.11.3 Multilayer Structures ..................................................... 328
`5.11.4 Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) .................................. 328
`5.12 GAS EVAPORATION AND ULTRAFINE PARTICLES .......... 329
`5.13 OTHER PROCESSES .................................................................. 330
`5.13.1 Reactive Evaporation and Activated Reactive
`Evaporation (ARE) ................................................... 330
`Jet Vapor Deposition Process ........................................ 331
`Field Evaporation .......................................................... 331
`
`5.13.2
`5.13.3
`
`5.8
`
`5.9
`
`5.11
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`Table of Contents
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`xvii
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`SUMMARY .................................................................................. 331
`5.14
`FURTHER READING .............................................................................. 331
`REFERENCES .......................................................................................... 332
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`6.3
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`6.4
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`6.5
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`6 Physical Sputtering and Sputter Deposition (Sputtering)343
`6.1
`INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 343
`6.2
`PHYSICAL SPUTTERING ................