U.S. Department
`oflransportation
`National Highway
`Traffic Safety
`Administration
`
`DOT HS 812 014
`
`*****
`NHTSA
`
`www.nhtsa.gov
`
`August 2014
`
`Vehicle-to-Vehicle Communications:
`Readiness of V2V Technology for
`Application
`
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`DISCLAIMER
`
`This publication is distributed by the U.S. Department of Transportation, National
`Highway Traffic Safety Administration, in the interest of information exchange.
`The opinions, findings, and conclusions expressed in this publication are those of
`the authors and not necessarily those of the Department of Transportation or the
`National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. The United States Government
`assumes no liability for its contents or use thereof. If trade or manufacturers’ names
`or products are mentioned, it is because they are considered essential to the object
`of the publication and should not be construed as an endorsement. The United
`States Government does not endorse products or manufacturers.
`
`Suggested APA Format Citation:
`
`Harding, J., Powell, G., R., Yoon, R., Fikentscher, J., Doyle, C., Sade, D.,
`Lukuc, M., Simons, J., & Wang, J. (2014, August). Vehicle-to-vehicle
`communications: Readiness of V2V technology for application. (Report
`No. DOT HS 812 014). Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety
`Administration.
`
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`
`
`Technical Report Documentation Page
`2. Government Accession No.
`1. Report No.
`I
`
`DOT HS 812 014
`4. Title and Subtitle
`Vehicle-to-Vehicle Communications: Readiness of V2V Technology
`for Application
`
`7. Authors
`John Harding, Gregory Powell, Rebecca Yoon, Joshua Fikentscher, Charlene
`Doyle, Dana Sade, Mike Lukuc, Jim Simons and Jing Wang
`9. Performing Organization Name and Address
`National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
`1200 New Jersey Avenue SE.
`Washington, DC 20590
`12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address
`
`
`3. Recipient’s Catalog No.
`
`5. Report Date
`August 2014
`6. Performing Organization Code
`
`8. Performing Organization
`Report No.
`
`
`10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS)
`
`11. Contract or Grant No.
`
`13. Type of Report and Period
`Covered
`Research
`14. Sponsoring Agency Code
`
`
`15. Supplementary Notes
`
`16. Abstract
`The purpose of this research report is to assess the readiness for application of vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V)
`communications, a system designed to transmit basic safety information between vehicles to facilitate warnings to
`drivers concerning impending crashes. The United States Department of Transportation and NHTSA have been
`conducting research on this technology for more than a decade. This report explores technical, legal, and policy
`issues relevant to V2V, analyzing the research conducted thus far, the technological solutions available for
`addressing the safety problems identified by the agency, the policy implications of those technological solutions,
`legal authority and legal issues such as liability and privacy. Using this report and other available information,
`decision-makers will determine how to proceed with additional activities involving vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V),
`vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I), and vehicle-to-pedestrian (V2P) technologies.
`
`
`17. Key Words
`vehicle-to-vehicle communications, crash avoidance, connected vehicle, safety
`applications, model deployment, safety pilot, vehicle awareness device,
`integrated device, aftermarket safety device, communication security, security
`credential management system, V2V technology
`
`18. Distribution Statement
`Document is
`available to the
`public from the
`National Technical
`Information Service
`www.ntis.gov
`21 No. of
`22. Price
`Pages
`327
`
`
`
`
`19 Security Classif. (of this report)
`
`20. Security Classif. (of this page)
`
`Unclassified
`
`Unclassified
`
`Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized
`
`i
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`
`
`Table of Contents
`
`
`I. Executive Summary ........................................................................................................................... xiii
`II.
`Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 1
`A. Purpose of this report ........................................................................................................................ 1
`B. History of V2V communication research program ........................................................................... 3
`1. History of ITS ............................................................................................................................... 3
`2. History of V2V research program and its role in ITS ................................................................... 4
`3. The Connected Vehicle Safety Pilot Program .............................................................................. 8
`4. Studies related to V2V light-vehicle research ............................................................................. 10
`5. Vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) ................................................................................................... 11
`Safety Need ..................................................................................................................................... 15
`III.
`A. Crashes potentially addressed by V2V technology ......................................................................... 16
`B. Potential for V2V to address vehicle crashes .................................................................................. 24
`C. Ways of addressing the safety need ................................................................................................ 25
`1. Scenarios addressed uniquely by vehicle-to-vehicle communications ....................................... 25
`2. Scenarios also addressed by vehicle sensor-based systems ........................................................ 27
`3. Scenarios possibly addressed by a combination of vehicle resident sensors and V2V
`communications ............................................................................................................................. 28
`D. Types of V2V devices ..................................................................................................................... 29
`1. OEM devices ............................................................................................................................... 29
`2. Aftermarket devices .................................................................................................................... 29
`3.
`Infrastructure-based devices ....................................................................................................... 32
`Scope and Legal Authority ............................................................................................................. 33
`IV.
`A. NHTSA’s scope and legal authority and how it applies to vehicle to vehicle communication ...... 33
`1.
`Integrated OEM V2V technologies ............................................................................................. 36
`2.
`Integrated aftermarket equipment ............................................................................................... 37
`3. Non-integrated aftermarket equipment ....................................................................................... 38
`4. Software that aids or updates the V2V system............................................................................ 40
`5. Roadside infrastructure (V2I) ..................................................................................................... 41
`B. Agency actions that are practicable and consistent with its legal authority .................................... 45
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`1. Elements of the Safety Act that would apply to potential future agency actions ........................ 45
`2. Safety standards for DSRC ......................................................................................................... 54
`3. Safety standards for DSRC-enabled safety applications ............................................................. 59
`4. Discussion of need for additional legal authority prior to taking regulatory actions regarding
`vehicle to vehicle communication ................................................................................................. 62
`C. Non-regulatory actions required to stand up V2V communications ............................................... 62
`D. Authority for the spectrum in which V2V will operate, and how it could affect the development of
`a V2V system .................................................................................................................................. 63
`V. Technical Practicability....................................................................................................................... 65
`A. Technical practicability and its importance to an agency decision ................................................. 65
`B. Overview of hardware components enabling system operation...................................................... 65
`1. Components used in testing ........................................................................................................ 66
`2. Components required for V2V system operation........................................................................ 67
`3. Vehicle-based hardware .............................................................................................................. 67
`4. Non-vehicle-based hardware....................................................................................................... 69
`C. Overview of software enabling system operation ........................................................................... 70
`D.
`Interoperability ................................................................................................................................ 71
`1.
`Interoperability and its importance ............................................................................................. 71
`2. Current maturity level of V2V wireless communication channels ............................................. 87
`3.
`Interoperability performance requirements ................................................................................. 96
`E. System Limitations ....................................................................................................................... 105
`1. What are the known system limitations for V2V communication? .......................................... 105
`2. Potential mitigation strategies for known system limitations ................................................... 112
`3. Device installation constraints and requirements ...................................................................... 114
`4. Managing device updates and improvements ........................................................................... 115
`F. Global activities and differences in V2V systems ........................................................................ 116
`1. Research and/or implementation of V2V communications in other regions ............................ 116
`2. Differences between the current U.S. regional vision and other regions .................................. 116
`VI. V2V Safety Applications .............................................................................................................. 119
`A. Performance metrics currently available for V2V safety applications ......................................... 119
`B. The safety applications.................................................................................................................. 120
`C. Key Findings for each V2V Safety Application ........................................................................... 121
`1. Forward Collision Warning ...................................................................................................... 121
`2. Emergency Electronic Brake Lights ......................................................................................... 122
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`3. Do Not Pass Warning ................................................................................................................ 122
`4. Left Turn Assist ........................................................................................................................ 122
`5.
`Intersection Movement Assist ................................................................................................... 123
`6. Blind Spot + Lane Change Warning ......................................................................................... 123
`D. Key conclusions for each application ........................................................................................... 124
`1. Forward Collision Warning ...................................................................................................... 124
`2. Blind Spot Warning + Lane Change Warning .......................................................................... 124
`3. Do Not Pass Warning ................................................................................................................ 124
`4. Left Turn Assist ........................................................................................................................ 125
`5. Emergency Electronic Brake Light ........................................................................................... 126
`6.
`Intersection Movement Assist ................................................................................................... 126
`7. False warning improvement research ....................................................................................... 126
`8. Performance measures improvement research .......................................................................... 127
`E. Driver-vehicle interface ................................................................................................................ 129
`F. Summary of major recommendations concerning safety applications .......................................... 130
`G. System compliance and enforcement ............................................................................................ 130
`VII. Public Acceptance ......................................................................................................................... 133
`A. The importance of public acceptance ............................................................................................ 133
`1. Potential key aspects of consumer acceptance for V2V communication .................................. 133
`2. Potential issues with industry support for V2V communication systems ................................. 136
`3. Preliminary information on consumer acceptance .................................................................... 137
`VIII. Privacy Considerations ................................................................................................................. 144
`A. Privacy considerations – what they are and why they are important ............................................ 144
`1. Transmission, collection, storage, and sharing of V2V data ..................................................... 145
`2. Privacy policies framework ...................................................................................................... 146
`3. The fair information practice principles .................................................................................... 148
`B. NHTSA’s interim privacy risk assessment ................................................................................... 150
`1. V2V system needs/functions that necessitate data transactions posing potential risks
`to privacy ..................................................................................................................................... 153
`2. Potential risks to privacy introduced by V2V communications or other data transactions necessary
`to satisfy system need .................................................................................................................. 154
`3. Technical, physical and/or policy controls evaluated to minimize potential privacy risks .......... 155
`4. Significance of the identified potential privacy risks ................................................................... 156
`IX. V2V Communications Security .................................................................................................... 158
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`A. Overview and importance of security ........................................................................................... 158
`1. Security options considered ...................................................................................................... 159
`2. Overview of PKI and how it works .......................................................................................... 163
`3. Limitations of existing PKI systems ......................................................................................... 165
`B. Current V2V security design concept ........................................................................................... 165
`1. SCMS component functions ..................................................................................................... 168
`2. Pseudonym functions/certificates ............................................................................................. 168
`3.
`Initialization functions/enrollment certificate ........................................................................... 171
`4. Comparing a basic PKI to the V2V security design ................................................................. 174
`5. V2V security research conducted or underway ........................................................................ 177
`6. Overall application of cryptography in V2V communications ................................................. 179
`7. Additional information on the current V2V security system design and research .................... 182
`C. Overview of system integrity and management ............................................................................ 184
`1. Key elements of system integrity and management .................................................................. 186
`2. SCMS ownership and operation ............................................................................................... 193
`3.
`“Enforcement” of system integrity/SCMS manager ................................................................. 195
`4.
`“Enforcement” of system integrity/Federal role ....................................................................... 195
`D. System governance and why it is important ................................................................................. 196
`1. Public model ............................................................................................................................. 199
`2. Public-private partnership model .............................................................................................. 200
`3. Private model ............................................................................................................................ 200
`4. Scope of the SCMS system governance.................................................................................... 204
`X. Legal Liability ................................................................................................................................... 208
`A. Overview ....................................................................................................................................... 208
`B.
`Industry’s liability concerns and solutions .................................................................................... 208
`C. Liability concerns specific to the SCMS ....................................................................................... 211
`D. Federal liability limiting mechanisms ........................................................................................... 211
`E. NHTSA’s assessment of industry liability .................................................................................... 212
`F. NHTSA’s assessment of SCMS liability ...................................................................................... 213
`XI.
`Preliminary Cost Estimates of V2V Implementation .................................................................... 216
`A. Overview of preliminary estimated V2V costs and benefits ........................................................ 216
`B. Discussion of V2V preliminary cost estimates ............................................................................. 217
`C. Projected vehicle equipment costs ................................................................................................ 218
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`1. OEM devices ............................................................................................................................. 219
`2. Aftermarket devices .................................................................................................................. 227
`3. How the preliminary projected vehicle equipment cost estimates were developed .................. 230
`D. Projected fuel economy impact – fuel costs for increased weight ................................................ 233
`1. Fuel price and estimated miles per gallon ................................................................................. 234
`2. Vehicle miles traveled and survivability ................................................................................... 235
`3.
`Incremental weight from V2V equipment ................................................................................ 235
`4. Summary of fuel economy impact ............................................................................................ 236
`E. Preliminary system communication costs ..................................................................................... 236
`1. Certificate revocation list .......................................................................................................... 238
`2. Alternative communication systems ......................................................................................... 241
`3. System requirements/network options ...................................................................................... 242
`4. Communication costs conclusions ............................................................................................ 251
`F. Security credentials management system cost modeling .............................................................. 252
`1. Preliminary projected costs for SCMS ...................................................................................... 252
`2. Funding the SCMS .................................................................................................................... 256
`G. Conclusion of preliminary V2V implementation cost estimates .................................................. 256
`H. Economic practicability ................................................................................................................ 257
`XII. Preliminary Effectiveness and Benefits Estimates of V2V ........................................................... 259
`A. Analysis of preliminary benefits of V2V technology ................................................................... 259
`1. Analysis overview ..................................................................................................................... 259
`2. Technology implementation scenarios ...................................................................................... 261
`3. Target population for V2V technology ..................................................................................... 262
`B. Effectiveness of the V2V safety applications ............................................................................... 266
`1. Safety Impact Methodology - SIM ........................................................................................... 267
`2. Driving Simulator Study - MiniSim .......................................................................................... 272
`3.
`Injury probability curves ........................................................................................................... 274
`4. Crashworthiness effectiveness by MAIS .................................................................................. 275
`5. Effectiveness of Intersection Movement Assist - IMA ............................................................. 275
`6. Effectiveness of Left Turn Assist - LTA .................................................................................. 282
`7. Summary of IMA and LTA effectiveness ................................................................................. 284
`C. Fleet communication rate (Ci) ....................................................................................................... 285
`D. Projected benefits of V2V technology .......................................................................................... 286
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`1. Maximum annual estimated benefits ........................................................................................ 286
`2. Annual Estimated Benefits by Calendar Year .......................................................................... 287
`XIII. Appendix A: Tables ...................................................................................................................... 288
`XIV. Appendix B: List of Policy, Standards and Research Needs ......................................................... 300
`A. Policy needs .................................................................................................................................. 300
`B. Standards needs ............................................................................................................................. 300
`C. Research needs .............................................................................................................................. 300
`XV. Appendix C: List of Tables, Figures and Equations ..................................................................... 301
`A. Tables ............................................................................................................................................ 301
`B. Figures........................................................................................................................................... 303
`C. Equations....................................................................................................................................... 303
`
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`
`Acronyms
`AAMVA
`ABS
`ACM
`ACN
`AERIS
`AHS
`ANPRM
`ARIB
`ARINC
`ASD
`ASTM
`ATM
`ATMIA
`BAH
`BSM
`BSW
`CA
`CAMP
`CAN
`CARS
`CBP
`CCH
`CFR
`CICAS-V
`CLW
`CME
`CP
`CRL
`CSR
`CSW
`CVE
`CVSS
`DAC
`DCM
`DE
`DF
`DG CONNECT
`
`DIACAP
`DNPW
`
`American Association of Motor Vehicle Administrators
`antilock braking system
`a la carte message set
`automatic crash notification
`Applications for the Environment: Real-Time Information Synthesis
`Automated Highway System Program
`Advanced Notice of Proposed Rulemaking
`Association of Radio Industries and Businesses
`Aeronautical Radio Incorporated
`aftermarket safety device
`American Society for Testing and Materials
`automatic teller machine
`ATM Industry Association
`Booz Allen Hamilton
`basic safety message
`blind spot warning
`certificate authority
`Crash Avoidance Metrics Partnership
`controller area network
`Car Allowance Rebate System - "Cash for Clunkers"
`channel busy percentage
`control channel
`Code of Federal Regulations
`Cooperative Intersection Collision Avoidance System-Violation
`control loss warning
`certificate management entity
`certificate policy
`certificate revocation list
`common safety request (message set )
`curve speed warning
`Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures
`Common Vulnerability Scoring System
`(V2V Light Vehicle) Driver Acceptance Clinics
`device configuration manager
`data element
`data frame
`European Commission Directorate General for Communication Networks,
`Content and Technology
`DOD Information Assurance Certification and Accreditation Process
`do not pass warning
`
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`DOD
`DOT
`DSRC
`DSRCS
`DVI
`ECA
`ECU
`EEBL
`EIA
`ELVS
`EPA
`ESC
`ETSI
`EU
`EUR
`FAA
`FARS
`FCC
`FCW
`FHWA
`FIPS
`FMVSS
`FOT
`FSS
`FTC
`GDP
`GES
`GHz
`GPS
`HIPAA
`HUD
`HV
`HW
`ICA
`ICANN
`ID
`IEEE
`IMA
`IPG
`ISACA
`ISM
`ISTEA
`ITIS
`ITS
`IVBSS
`
`U.S. Department of Defense
`U.S. Department of Transportation
`dedicated short-range communications
`Dedicated Short Range Communications Systems
`driver-vehicle interface
`enrollment certificate authority
`electronic control unit
`emergency electronic brake lights
`Energy Information Administration
`End of Life Vehicle Consortium
`Environmental Protection Agency
`electronic stability control
`European Telecommunications Standards Institute
`European Union
`European Union Region
`Federal Aviation Administration
`Fatality Analysis Reporting System
`Federal Communication Commission
`forward collision warning
`Federal Highway Administration
`Federal Information Processing Standards
`Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard
`field operational test
`fixed satellite service
`Federal Trade Commission
`gross domestic product
`General Estimates System
`gigahertz - frequency measurement
`Global Positioning System
`Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act
`heads-up display
`host vehicle
`hardware
`intersection collision avoidance
`Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers
`identification
`Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
`Intersection Movement Assist
`inter-packet gap
`Information Systems Audit and Control Association
`Industrial, Scientific and Medical
`Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act
`Integrated Taxonomic Information System
`Intelligent Transportation System
`Integrated Vehicle-Based Safety Systems
`
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`IVI
`Intelligent Vehicle Initiative
`JPO
`Joint Program Office
`Linkage Authority
`LA
`LCW
`lane change warning
`lane departure warning
`LDW
`logical link control
`LLC
`location obscurer proxy
`LOP
`left turn assist
`LTA
`LTAP/OD
`left turn across path/opposite direction
`Light-truck vehicle
`LTV
`lead vehicle decelerating
`LVD
`lead vehicle moving
`LVM
`lead vehicle stopped
`LVS
`misbehavior authority
`MA
`MAC (Section IV) Message Authentication Code
`MAC (Section VIII) Medium Access Control
`MAIS
`Maximum Abbreviated Injury Scale
`MLIT
`Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transportation and Tourism
`MOU
`Memorandum of Understanding
`MY
`model year
`NAS
`National Academy of Sciences
`NCAP
`New Car Assessment Program
`NHTSA
`National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
`NIST
`National Institute of Standards and Technology
`NPRM
`Notice of Proposed Rulemaking
`National Transportation Communications for Intelligent Transportation System
`NTCIP
`Protocol
`NTIA
`National Telecommunications and Information Administration
`NTTAA
`National Technology Transfer and Advancement Act
`OBE
`on-board equipment
`OBU
`on board units
`ODI
`Office of Defects Investigations
`OE
`original equipment
`OEM
`original equipment manufacturer
`Department of Transportation Office of the Assistant Secretary for Research and
`OST-R
`Technology
`OTA
`Over the air
`OVW
`Oversize Vehicle Warning
`PC
`Passenger car
`PCA
`Pseudonym Certificate Authority
`PCI DSS
`Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard
`PDO
`property-damage-only
`PER
`packet error rate
`PII
`Personally-identifiable information
`PKI
`public key infrastructure
`
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`POC
`PPP
`PPS
`PPSG
`PRA
`PSID
`PTE
`RA
`RCVW
`RF
`RLVW
`RSD
`RSE
`RSU
`RSZW
`RTCM
`RTK
`RV
`SAE
`SCH
`SCMS
`SCP
`SD
`SE
`SHRP2
`SP
`SPaT
`SSGA
`SSP
`SSVW
`STD
`SW
`SWIW
`TEA-21
`TESLA
`UBI
`UDP
`UMRA
`UMTRI
`U-NII
`USDOT
`UTC
`V2I
`V2V
`V2X
`
`proof of concept
`public private partnership
`pulse per second
`NTIA’s Policy and Plans Steering Group
`Paperwork Reduction Act
`provider service identifier
`position tracking error
`registration authority
`railro