LEARNING STRATEGIES IN PLAY DURING BASIC TRAINING FOR
`MEDAL OF HONOR AND CALL OF DUTY VIDEO GAMES
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`Yadi Ziaeehezarjeribi
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`Submitted to the faculty of the University Graduate School
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`in partial fulfillment of the requirements
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`for the degree
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`Doctor of Philosophy
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`in the Department of Instructional System Technology
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`in the Indiana University School of Education,
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`Indiana University
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`October 2010
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`UMI Number: 3432149
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`All rights reserved
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`INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
`The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted.
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`and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed,
`a note will indicate the deletion.
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`UMI 3432149
`Copyright 2010 by ProQuest LLC.
`All rights reserved. This edition of the work is protected against
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`Accepted by the Graduate Faculty, Indiana University,
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`in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
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`Doctoral Committee
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`Committee Chair: Curtis J. Bonk, Ph.D., IST.
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`Director of Dissertation: Robert L. Appelman, Ph.D., IST
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`Thom Gillespie, Ph.D., South University
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`___________________________________________
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`Lee Sheldon, MFA., Telecommunications
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`Dissertation Defense Date: October , 2010
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`© (2010)
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`Yadi Ziaeehezarjeribi
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`ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
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`Dedication and Acknowledgements
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`This dissertation is dedicated to my brother Morteza and my sister Miriam
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`Ziaeehezarjeribi. My brother and sister‟s childhood memories gave me the strength to
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`accomplish my goal of completing my doctorate and a new appreciation for the meaning and
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`importance of life. They were very young when they passed away. I did not have a chance to see
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`them over thirty years before departing this world. Their memories live forever. I owe many
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`thanks to my family, brother, and sisters, especially to my mother and father who believed in me
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`even when I struggled.
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`My many thanks and appreciation to Dr. Robert Appelman (aka Dr. Bob), Clinical
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`Professor, and Director of Technology at the Department of Instructional Systems Technology,
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`Indiana University who was my advisor throughout my entire graduate program. As my mentor,
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`he continued working with me throughout the time until the completion of this research and the
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`finalization of my dissertation. Dr. Appelman is the reason I hold an advanced degree. He
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`believed in me, continued working with me unconditionally, and provided me with all the
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`necessary technological and pedagogical skills to fulfill my graduate program. Additionally, he
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`always welcomed me to his home for occasional lounging. His lovely wife, Rebecca Appelman
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`(aka Becky/my adopted sister) made me feel like at home and made me an honorary Hoosier. I
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`will never forget her kindness and Hoosier hospitality.
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`I am obliged as well to Dr. Curtis J. Bonk (aka Dr. Jay), Professor in the Department of
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`Instructional Systems Technology, Indiana University, overseeing my progress. I am grateful for
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`his untiring support and mentorship which gave a new life to my education. His timely advice
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`made it possible for me to complete my degree from a distance. Dr. Bonk is another person who
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`helped me attain an advanced degree. His courses were very challenging, but he made me a
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`better writer and showed me how to multitask in 100 plus different ways. Dr. Jay is very
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`generous and known for his hospitality. He often invited his students and colleagues to his home
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`for intellectual discussion and occasional sports events.
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` The inspiration for doing video game research came from Dr. Thomas Gillespie the
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`founder and Director, of the Masters in Immersive Mediated Environments (MIME) at
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`Indiana University, currently Associate Professor, Department of Information
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`Technology, South University. Dr. Gillespie encouraged me to join several other Video Game
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`player “geeks” to attend the Game Developer Conference in San Jose, California in 1992. The
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`Game Developer Conference experience and along with the advanced degree program at the
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`Instructional Systems Technology Department, Indiana University influenced my research
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`greatly. Thom has been a great mentor and a friend. He was an inspiring and motivating
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`individual who helped me develop my individual identity and become a free thinker.
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`I was also very excited to have Professor Lee Sheldon, Associate Professor, Master’s in
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`Immersive Mediated Environments (MIME) at Indiana University, who at the time
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`was an Associate Professor, Department of Information Technology, is currently in the
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`Department of Language, Literature and Communication, Co-Director Games and Simulation
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`Arts and Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. He was very kind to accept my invitation to
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`join my dissertation committees. Lee‟s experience with video games and Non-Fiction character-
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`driven storytelling, Television and Films has given my dissertation and research a new life. His
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`expertise with the gaming industry provided me an inside scoop and the necessary lingo to make
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`my dissertation worthy of reading.
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`The members of my dissertation committee, Robert Appelman, Curtis Bonk, Thomas
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`Gillespie, and Lee Sheldon, have patiently and unconditionally given me their time and expertise
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`to improve my research study and my dissertation. I thank them for their contribution and
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`support. To the Instructional Systems Technology department, who assisted, advised, and
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`supported my research and writing efforts over the years, I am grateful to the entire Instructional
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`Systems Technology faculty and staff.
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`I am grateful to my all time favorite person, Dr. Ingrid Graves, my best friend and
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`research partner. Ingrid never gave up on me. Without her unconditional support, I would have
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`never finished my dissertation. Additionally, Ingrid‟s family shared their memories and
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`experiences with me during many happy occasions. To Dr. Bret Smoker, M.D. (Ingrid‟s brother),
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`who generously shared his home in Santa Fe, New Mexico for holidays and family gatherings. I
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`send many thanks to Christopher Graves, Ann Klas, and Kurt Smoker, who accepted me as one
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`of their own. Their generosity and kindness is truly humbling.
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`I must especially thank Dr. Hassan Danesh who has been a great friend and mentor for
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`over twenty years. His dedication to my school and personal life is second to none. Hassan was
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`the person who introduced me to the Instructional Systems Technology program. Without his
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`friendship I would not have been able to maintain my sanity as I chose my graduate program.
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`I must acknowledge the friendship and support I received while staying in Bloomington,
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`Indiana and Spearrfish South Dakota. I must thank my dear friends, Eva Bruce, Joey Bruce, Ted
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`Brown, Bob Carteaux, Dennis Ellis, Robert Fischler, Susan Funke, Thomas Gabriel, Siobhan
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`Harper, Rich Loose, Erik Novak, Dr. Devrim Ozdemir, Scott Taylor, John Wardrop, Michael
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`Wood, Sonny, and Jamie Kirkly. I need to express my gratitude and deep appreciation to Dr.
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`Thomas Schwen, who admitted me to the Instructional Systems Technology department and
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`mentored me in throughout the program. Professor Elizabeth Boling, Dr. Theodore Frick, Dr.
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`Michael Molenda, and Dr. Charles Reigeluth consistently encouraged me to finish my degree by
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`adding fresh perspectives to the way I looked at the field of Instructional Systems Technology.
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`ABSTRACT
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`This study, based on experiential play methodology was used to explore student
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`engagement while playing Medal of Honor (2002) and Call of Duty (2003). It identifies some of
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`the key issues related to the use of video games and simulations during the training phase of
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`game play. Research into the effects of gaming in education has been extremely widely varied
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`and limited in terms of the methodological rigor incorporated. An Experiential Mode Framework
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`(EMF), a newly designed micro-analysis methodology of student engagement during game play
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`(Appelman 2005 & 2007b), was used for data collection and analysis. This study sought to
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`determine if there is a consistent pattern between the manner in which a Novice and Expert
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`player engage with a particular game. This was accomplished through observation at a micro
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`level while players learned, strategized, and performed as they entered into new gaming
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`environments. The results of this study are limited. However, the data analysis conducted here
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`demonstrates the player‟s ability to problem solve through difficult obstacles using navigational
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`strategies in virtual spaces. It also reveals distinct player abilities to manipulate alternatives or
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`information within the game. Medal of Honor and Call of Duty training components provided
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`explicit instructions needed to play the game. Although results were skewed by time constraints
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`and convenient sampling, it was found that while the game instructions were redundant, some
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`players did not necessarily attend to spoken or written instructions which were critical
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`components of the training session and often crucial for successful completion of milestones
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`(objectives).
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`TABLE OF CONTENTS
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`Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... viii
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`Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 1
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`Attributes .......................................................................................................................................................... 3
`Strategies ......................................................................................................................................................... 4
`Player Experience .......................................................................................................................................... 4
`Fidelity ............................................................................................................................................................... 6
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`Research Questions ........................................................................................................................................... 6
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`Chapter 2: Review of the Literature ................................................................................................... 7
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`Laws of Learning ................................................................................................................................................ 7
`How Video Games Facilitate Learning ................................................................................................... 9
`Gaming Conventions .................................................................................................................................. 10
`Historical Perspective of Research on Simulations and Games in K-12 ................................. 12
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`Interactive Multimedia ................................................................................................................................... 13
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`Handheld or Portable Devices ..................................................................................................................... 14
`Virtual Manipulatives .................................................................................................................................. 15
`Critique of Methodology from Studies on Gaming and Simulations ........................................ 21
`Experiential Mode Framework ................................................................................................................ 23
`Criteria for Selecting the Appropriate Video Game ........................................................................ 26
`Examination of Learning in Digital Learning Context .................................................................... 30
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`Chapter 3: Methodology ......................................................................................................................... 38
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`The research questions are: ........................................................................................................................ 38
`Preliminary Exploratory Research ......................................................................................................... 38
`Pre-play Analysis ......................................................................................................................................... 38
`Establishment of Ideal Play Time .......................................................................................................... 42
`Participant Selection/Categorization .................................................................................................... 42
`Facilities .......................................................................................................................................................... 43
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`Data Collection Procedure ............................................................................................................................. 44
`Player Demographics ................................................................................................................................. 44
`Tasks ................................................................................................................................................................ 46
`Post-Game Play Interview ........................................................................................................................ 46
`Post-Play Analysis ....................................................................................................................................... 46
`Initial Phase of Study ................................................................................................................................. 54
`Participant Selection ................................................................................................................................... 55
`Comparison Chart of Players................................................................................................................... 58
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`Chapter 4: Data Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 62
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`Medal of Honor Expert Player Trajectory ........................................................................................... 66
`Medal of Honor Novice Player Trajectory ........................................................................................... 73
`Milestone 4 ..................................................................................................................................................... 74
`Milestone 5 ..................................................................................................................................................... 76
`Milestone 6 ..................................................................................................................................................... 78
`Milestone 8 ..................................................................................................................................................... 79
`Milestone 9 ..................................................................................................................................................... 80
`Call of Duty Expert Player Trajectory .................................................................................................. 83
`Call of Duty Novice Player Trajectory .................................................................................................. 88
`M3 Open gate................................................................................................................................................ 93
`Trends in Data .............................................................................................................................................. 95
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`Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusions ........................................................................................ 101
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`Research Questions ....................................................................................................................................... 101
`Learner Control .......................................................................................................................................... 102
`Audible and Visual Attributes ................................................................................................................ 102
`Content Design ........................................................................................................................................... 103
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`Game Conventions ......................................................................................................................................... 104
`Rules of Engagement ............................................................................................................................... 108
`Experiential Learning ............................................................................................................................... 109
`Keyboard Conventions ............................................................................................................................. 111
`On Demand List of Objectives .............................................................................................................. 112
`Medal of Honor and Call of Duty Fidelity .......................................................................................... 112
`Functional Fidelity ..................................................................................................................................... 112
`Expert and Novice Players Demonstrated Different Learning Approaches During Player
`Action ............................................................................................................................................................. 114
`Expert Players Quick to Utilize Affordances when Advancing through Training Session
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`Summary of Research Findings ................................................................................................................ 120
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`Conclusions and Implications .................................................................................................................... 121
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`Limitations ........................................................................................................................................................ 122
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`The Impact of this Study on Future Directions ................................................................................... 124
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`References: ................................................................................................................................................. 127
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`APPENDICES
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`Appendix A: Sample Game Play Analysis Log Sheet .............................................................. 136
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`Appendix B: Video Game Rating System..................................................................................... 137
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`Appendix C: Video Game Selection ................................................................................................ 138
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`Appendix D: Demographic Survey .................................................................................................. 139
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`Appendix E: Post Game Interview ................................................................................................. 143
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`Appendix F: Medal of Honor Keyboard Functions .................................................................... 145
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`Appendix G: Call of Duty World at War Keyboard Functions ............................................ 147
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`Appendix H: Call of Duty and Medal of Honor Game Fidelity Chart ............................... 149
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`Appendix I: Medal of Honor Game Play Analysis Expert Player Log sheet ................ 157
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`Appendix J: Medal of Honor Game Play Analysis Novice Player Log sheet ............... 163
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`Appendix K: Call of Duty Game Play Analysis Expert Player Log sheet ....................... 170
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`Appendix L: Call of Duty Game Play Analysis Novice Player Log sheet ....................... 174
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`CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
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`Video gaming is now an industry that is appealing to more than just stereotypical
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`computer geeks (Annetta, Murray, Laird, Bohr, & Park, 2006; Graves & Ziaeehezarjeribi, 2008).
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`The shift in the culture of video gaming has moved beyond entertainment and into gaming as a
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`serious learning endeavor in health, science, military, and corporate training. Video games have
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`had a major impact on the world economy (DeMaria, 2007). According to Pew‟s (2010)
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`research survey, among Millennials, the only significant difference, according to age, is the
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`number of postings to an online profile;
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` More Millennials posted to an online profile in the previous 24 hours (37% vs.
`26%).
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` More young men than women played video games (37% vs. 18%) and watched a
`video online (39% vs. 26%) in the 24 hours prior to the survey.
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` More women posted a message to someone‟s online profile (37% vs. 28%).
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` There were very few differences by race and ethnicity; however, more white
`Millennials (61%) sent or received an email in the previous 24 hours than did
`blacks (47%) or Hispanics (45%). (p. 36).
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`Consider for a moment that more than a third of all video gaming software purchased in
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`2006 was intended for adults and half of the members in massively multi-player online games
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`are now women (Simpson, 2005). Research is beginning to establish the cognitive complexity of
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`learning to become members of a gaming community. As Bielaczyc and Collins (1999) state,
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`learning communities develop more than just “content knowledge and skills” and deliver
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`learning process in different ways that have all the components of plans, goals, and assumptions.
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`While the understanding among most in the gaming industry is that not all games are suited for
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`the classroom (Aldrich, 2005), educators are now beginning to take note of the important
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`elements of traditionally identified leisure video games which hold the potential to be carefully
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`embedded in the classroom curriculum. Thiagarajan (2003) points out that “many people are
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`desperately seeking research evidence to prove that training games are more effective than
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`traditional strategies” (p. 2), and that the incorporation of games into classroom pedagogy has
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`potential to improve instruction for students who do not learn through traditional instruction. Is
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`this really the case? Perhaps the answer to whether training games are more effective than
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`traditional didactic instruction can be found by examining the empirical research of a few studies
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`and capitalizing on both the findings and limitations. For the most part, video games contain
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`challenging educational rules with repetitive content which supports the acquisition of problem-
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`solving through cognitive-based activities. Becker (2007) has even claimed that video games are
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`“a new instructional technology with exciting potential.”
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`To begin to understand what makes “gaming” compelling for educators, it is important to
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`understand the esoteric language that surrounds descriptions of game play as well as the games
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`themselves. A glossary of these macro descriptions is provided at the end of this study to
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`facilitate the reader‟s understanding of the new and complex domain of game-based
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`instruction/learning. Prior to this study, the micro variances between game play and the specific
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`interactions with the attributes of a game have been lost in methodological approaches. In other
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`words, the granularity of focus in previous studies (Barab,et.al., 2007; Hickey, Moore &
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`Pellegrino, 200; Horwitz, Schwartz, Kindfield, Yessis, Hickey, Heidenberg, & Wolfe 1998;
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`Macaulay, 2003; Reime & Moyer 2005; Rosas, Nussbaum, Cumsille, Marianov, Correa, Flores,
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`Grau, Lagos, López, López, Rodriguez, & Salinas, 2003; Squire, 2004; Steinkuehler, 2004)
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`seems to produce small results. As each player navigates through a game, a myriad of decisions
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`confront the player, some of which are posed by the game itself, while individual decisions are
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`more cognitive in nature. Simply put, the player is always reacting to the components of the
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`games. A short list of game concepts are discussed in the following sections.
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`ATTRIBUTES
`In many video games player interface characteristics such as graphic and cinematic
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`realism, imagination, interactivity, challenge, conflict, creativity, abstraction, music, language,
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`and within-game structure contribute to player‟s engagement. Fictional and non fictional games
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`have similarities. Important non-player controls such as sound track, background voices,
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`cinematic themes, and narrative are generally consistent with real world situations. Historical
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`characters may emerge at timely intervals (Civilization III) to both influence the aesthetic nature
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`of game play and support the cognitive function of the player. For instance, Medal of Honor and
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`Call of Duty contain realistic drill and practice which simulate actual training in the United
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`States military. The commander in MOH and COD provided verbal prompts to assist the player
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`with the nuances of using the keyboard (spacebar used to jump over fence, press [C] to crouch).
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`Well designed drill and practice simulations use the action of the game to engage learners.
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`According to Squire (2003)
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`The strength in high-fidelity simulations lies in their ability to produce particular
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`situations consistent with other situations in which learners are expected to participate . . . . low
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`fidelity simulations are also used when the emphasis is on developing a conceptual
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`understanding because they allow students to interact with complex systems while reducing or
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`eliminating extraneous variables. (p. 5)
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`STRATEGIES
`DeMaria (2007) notes that strategies used for “resource management, long- and short-
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`range planning” provided players some ability to monitor the expiration of time, to achieve a
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`quick recovery by restarting the game, or avoid elimination within the game. Video games vary
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`in this structure of game play. Some video games are structured in an extremely linear manner
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`which clearly moves a player through specified goals or objectives. For instance, the training
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`portion of Medal of Honor and Call of Duty contains highly structured guidance which moves
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`players through a training session. Even though these two games are “highly structured,” this
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`does not mean the games are sequenced in the same manner. Many games provide information or
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`instruction to the player which affects the player‟s strategy. By tracking the information flow
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`within a game, while also monitoring the player‟s game play, it may be possible to identify
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`cognition through shifts in player strategy.
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`PLAYER EXPERIENCE
`The strategies players used are dependent on prior experience with game play. Novice
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`players may not be familiar with game conventions such as using the forward and backward
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`buttons to move through the game. They tend not to notice subtle cues such as written objectives
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`randomly displayed on the screen or may not listen to verbal instructions at the beginning of a
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`play session. With many complex attributes in a game, Novice players may suffer “cognitive
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`overload” which holds the potential to impede progress. Expert players are generally able to
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`multitask and demonstrate familiarity with components of a game even if they have never played
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`a specific video game before. Expert players transfer prior game experience and conventions to
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`unfamiliar settings. According to VanDeventer and White (2002), the acquisition of expertise
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`involves two key factors, vast knowledge of and extensive varied experience in the field. They
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`add, “The process of becoming an expert generally requires hundreds and usually thousands of
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`hours of practice and study, however experts in any field share a set of common characteristics”
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`(VanDeventer & White, 2002, p. 29). Expert players are comfortable and excel in their own
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`domain, solve problems quickly with fewer errors, possess good short-term and long-term
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`memory, have better analytical skills than their Novice counterparts, and have strong self-
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`monitoring skills. Novice players solve problems at a very superficial level which places them at
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`a disadvantage in an unfamiliar domain.
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`Learning in the context of this study, relates to that which involves the ability to obtain
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`appropriate skills to complete a level, objective, or goal within a game, and to become more
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`proficient over time. Reiber, Smith, and Noah (1998) claim that self-regulated learners find
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`learning goals intrinsically motivating, are able to self-monitor, and make corrections to the
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`learning process so learning can go on. This study poses questions related to the key aspects of
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`players, the design of games, and the impact game play has on learning.
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`From a more theoretical view, noting the learning that happens within gaming and
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`simulations is more than that which is explained through constructivist theory, Jonassen (1999)
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`states that “the key to meaningful learning is ownership of the problem or learning goal, …[and].
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`must provide interesting, relevant, and engaging problems to solve” (p. 219). The unique
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`learning that happens in simulations and games is more than easily recognizing symbols or icons
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`(Kress, 2003), identifying with or becoming a member of a discourse community (Gee, 2003),
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`and most certainly it is more than simply doing what works.
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`FIDELITY
`Alexander, Brunye, Sidman, and Weil (2005) discuss three types of fidelity within a
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`simulation and this type of video game; physical fidelity, psychological fidelity, and functional
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`fidelity. Physical fidelity includes creating an environment which closely emulates “visual,
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`auditory, vestibular, olfactory, and proprioceptive” real world conditions. Psychological fidelity
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`is the degree to which the simulation replicates the psychological factors such as stress and fear
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`experienced during landing of an aircraft or conducting surgery. Functional fidelity includes the
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`realistic experiences within a game or simulation which prepares a player to function outside of
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`the game such as learning to follow orders from a commander.
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`Well-structured games and simulations provide a student with a complex interface of
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`symbolic ideas and goal directed activities. As such, this study examines the key contributing
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`factors and strategies used by middle school students when using the basic training section of
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`Call of Duty and Medal of Honor. In order to determine the types of learning that occur in an
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`informal virtual gaming environment, this study was structured to answer the following research
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`questions.
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`RESEARCH QUESTIONS
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`1. What are some key attributes in the video games Medal of Honor a