CSIRO PUBLISHING
`
`www.publish.csiro.au/journals/app
`
`Australasian Plant Pathology, 2004, 33, 379–384
`
`Evaluation of mineral oils and plant-derived spray adjuvants,
`mancozeb formulations and rates of application, for the control of yellow
`Sigatoka leaf spot (caused by Mycosphaerella musicola) of bananas in far
`northern Queensland, Australia
`
`L. L. VawdreyA,C, R. A. PetersonB, L. DeMarchiA and K. E. GriceB
`
`AAgency for Food and Fibre Sciences — Horticulture, Department of Primary Industries, Centre for Wet Tropics
`Agriculture, South Johnstone, Qld 4859, Australia.
`BAgency for Food and Fibre Sciences — Horticulture, Department of Primary Industries, Centre for Tropical
`Agriculture, Mareeba, Qld 4880, Australia.
`CCorresponding author; email: lynton.vawdrey@dpi.qld.gov.au
`
`Abstract. Five mineral oils, four plant oils, and a plant-derived non-ionic sticker/adjuvant were evaluated for the
`control of yellow Sigatoka of banana in a field experiment in far northern Queensland, Australia. Treatments were
`compared with the industry standards BP Miscible Banana Misting Oil and Fuchs Spray Oil used at the
`recommended rate of 4075 g a.i./ha. The plant-derived products were less effective (P < 0.05) at controlling yellow
`Sigatoka than either industry standard mineral oil. All the mineral oil treatments gave more effective disease control
`(P < 0.05) than any of the plant-derived treatments. Increasing rates of application of BP Miscible Banana Misting
`Oil (2853, 4075, 6520 or 8150 g a.i./ha) resulted in an increase in the control of yellow Sigatoka. In a second field
`experiment, 13 treatments consisting of four formulations of mancozeb used at varying rates of application were
`evaluated. There was no significant difference (P > 0.05) between mancozeb formulations. Disease assessments
`conducted 2 weeks prior to harvest showed that mancozeb as Dithane DF at 1000 g a.i./ha was less effective than
`Dithane DF at 1760, 2000 or 2500 g a.i./ha in controlling yellow Sigatoka.
`
`AP04043
`
`Control of Mycosphaerella musicola in bananasL. L. Vawdrey et al.
`
`
`Additional keywords: canola oil, dithiocarbamates, Giant Cavendish, paraffinic oils, petroleum oils, tea tree oil.
`
`Introduction
`The northern Queensland banana industry is situated on
`the wet tropical coast near the towns of Innisfail (17°30cS,
`146°00cE) and Tully (18°00cS, 146°00cE). The industry
`depends almost entirely on the Giant Cavendish [Musa
`(AAA, Cavendish subgroup)] which is highly susceptible to
`yellow Sigatoka leaf spot caused by Mycosphaerella
`musicola.
`Since the late 1950s, petroleum and paraffinic oils,
`collectively known as mineral oils, have been part of spray
`programs used by banana growers to control yellow Sigatoka
`(Stover and Simmonds 1987). These spray oils were either
`used alone or in combination with fixed coppers or
`dithiocarbamate fungicides (Pont 1962). Mineral oils have
`been shown to help systemic fungicides penetrate leaves,
`improve rainfastness, provide fungistatic activity against the
`yellow Sigatoka organism and delay the appearance of
`
`symptoms and slow lesion expansion (Jones 2000). Since the
`early 1980s, mineral oils have been used with the protectant
`fungicide mancozeb
`and
`the
`systemic
`fungicides
`propiconazole and tebuconazole in spray strategies designed
`to reduce the risk of fungicide tolerance (Ramsey et al. 1987;
`Kernot 1998).
`A number of different formulations of mancozeb are
`presently registered for use on bananas with rates of
`application varying from 1000 to 1760 g active ingredient
`(a.i.)/ha (Infopest 2003). The comparative efficacy of the
`different formulations and rates of application used is
`causing uncertainty amongst banana growers. Similarly, a
`number of formulations of mineral oil are presently
`registered for use on bananas, and rates of application vary
`from 3.5 to 12 L/ha (Infopest 2003). Within the banana
`industry, there is increasing interest in reduced chemical
`usage particularly in regard to the use of lower than
`
`© Australasian Plant Pathology Society 2004
`
`10.1071/AP04043
`
`0815-3191/04/030379
`
`

`

`380
`
`Australasian Plant Pathology
`
`L. L. Vawdrey et al.
`
`Table 1. Formulation and origin of mineral oils and plant-derived adjuvants used in a field experiment to control yellow Sigatoka of
`banana
`
`Common name
`
`Formulation
`g/L
`
`Trade name
`
`Supplier
`
`Paraffinic oil
`Paraffinic oil
`Paraffinic oil
`Petroleum oil
`Petroleum oil
`Emulsified vegetable oil
`Canola oil
`Methyl ethyl esters of canola
`oil
`Di-1-p-menthene
`Tea tree oil + canola oil +
`nonyl phenyl
`
`815
`815
`815
`823
`823
`832
`905
`700
`
`BP Miscible Banana Misting Oil
`SACOA Biopest Paraffin Oil
`SACOA Bioprotect
`SACOA Summer Insecticidal Spray Oil
`Fuchs Spray Oil Universal
`Xtend Multipurpose Spray Oil
`Synertrol Horti Oil
`Synertrol Excel
`
`BP Australia Limited
`SACOA
`SACOA
`SACOA
`Fuchs
`Grow Green
`Organic Crop Protectants
`Organic Crop Protectants
`
`Leyfroy Valley
`Nu-Film-17
`904
`1000 + 905 + 600 Tea tree oil + Synertrol Horti Oil + Agral North Queensland Essential Oils, Organic
`Crop Protectants, Crop Care Australasia
`
`Table 2. Formulation and origin of mancozeb treatments used in a field experiment to control yellow Sigatoka of banana
`
`Common name
`
`Mancozeb
`Mancozeb + petroleum oil
`Mancozeb + petroleum oil
`Mancozeb
`
`FormulationA
`
`750 g/kg (d.f.)
`125 g + 412 g/L (o.c.)
`420 g + 100 g/L (s.c.)
`800 g/kg (w.p.)
`
`Trade name
`
`Supplier
`
`Dithane DF
`Dithane OC
`Penncozeb 420 SC
`Dithane M45
`
`Dow Agrosciences
`Dow Agrosciences
`Nufarm Australia
`Dow Agrosciences
`
`AType of formulation: d.f. = dry flowable, o.c. = oil concentrate, s.c. = soluble concentrate and w.p. = wettable powder.
`
`recommended rates of mineral oil because of concerns of
`phytotoxicity and reduced yields. In some instances,
`plant-derived spray adjuvants are being substituted for
`mineral oil but the efficacy of these products compared with
`mineral oil is unknown.
`This paper reports the efficacy of various formulations of
`mineral oil, plant oils, mancozeb and a plant-derived
`sticker/adjuvant for the control of yellow Sigatoka of banana.
`
`Methods
`Two field experiments were conducted during 2002 at the Centre for
`Wet Tropics Agriculture, South Johnstone, Queensland. The rainfall
`recorded during 2002 was 1999 mm, which was well below the centre’s
`average of 3317 mm. Each experiment was designed as a randomised
`complete block of bananas [Musa (AAA, Cavendish subgroup)] cv.
`Williams, irrigated by mini-sprinklers. The fertiliser program for each
`experiment consisted of two applications of Crop King 55 (13.2% N,
`14.7% P, 12.3% K, 1.5% S) at the rate of 185 kg/ha, monthly side
`dressings of potassium nitrate (19.3% N, 0% P and 28.4% K) at the rate
`of 79 kg/ha and monthly applications of urea (19 kg/ha) through the
`mini-sprinkler irrigation. Plots contained a single row of 10 plants, and
`a single row of unsprayed plants separated treatments. Plants consisted
`of a single sucker of similar size and age chosen from a mat of suckers
`from the previous crop. Treatments were commenced when plants had
`4–5 fully expanded leaves. There was no visible Sigatoka in either
`experiment at this stage. Treatments were applied fortnightly with a
`motorised backpack mister (Efco) during the warmer wetter months
`(February to May) and every 3 weeks during the cooler drier months
`from June until harvest (October to November). Spray volume was
`calibrated by spraying 10 guard plants and varied between 244 and 355
`L/ha as the plants grew.
`
`Disease assessment
`Disease development and the efficacy of each treatment were
`assessed after 6 and 10 spray applications on 5 plants of similar
`maturity per plot using the ‘youngest leaf spotted’ (YLS) method
`(Stover and Dickson 1970). The YLS was determined by counting from
`the most recent fully expanded leaf to the first leaf with t 10 fully
`developed spots. Within 2 weeks of harvest, disease severity ratings
`were assessed on each leaf of 5 fruiting banana plants per plot using
`rating classes modified from Stover (1971). The rating classes used
`were, 0 = no disease symptoms, 1 = < 1% of leaf with disease symptoms
`(10 spots per leaf), 2 = 1–5% of leaf area spotted, 3 = 6–15%, 4 =
`16–33%, 5 = 34–50%, and 6 = > 50% of leaf area spotted. A disease
`severity index (DSI) was calculated from the rating from each leaf and
`averaged across each plot and treatment. An average leaf spot rating
`(ALR) was calculated for each plant from the sum of the disease
`severity ratings for each leaf divided by the number of leaves. The total
`number of leaves per plant was also assessed.
`
`Mineral oil and plant-derived adjuvants, and rates of application of
`mineral oil
`This experiment was conducted on a 4th ratoon banana crop. Spray
`treatments (Table 1) commenced on 22 February 2002, and a total of 12
`treatment applications were made during the experiment. All treatments
`except tea tree oil + Synertrol Horti Oil + the wetting agent Agral were
`mixed with Dithane M45 (800 g/kg) at 1760 g a.i./ha.
`
`Mancozeb formulations and rates of application
`This experiment was conducted on a 1st ratoon banana crop. Spray
`treatments consisted of four formulations of mancozeb (Table 2) used
`at various rates of application (Table 4). All treatments except Dithane
`OC, which contains 412 g/L petroleum oil, were mixed with BP
`Miscible Banana Misting Oil to achieve an equivalent rate of oil of
`4075 g a.i./ha.
`
`

`

`Control of Mycosphaerella musicola in bananas
`
`Australasian Plant Pathology
`
`381
`
`CDisease severity index = [(Sum nb)(N–1) × T] × 100 where n = number of leaves in each grade, b = grade, N = number of grades used (7), and T = total of leaves graded on each plant.
`BMeans in the same column followed by the same letter are not significantly different (P > 0.05).
`AMancozeb (800 g/kg, w.p.) at 1760 g a.i./ha was applied with all treatments except tea tree oil + canola oil (Synertrol Horti Oil).
`
`45.10 f
`27.73 de
`25.83 d
`33.27 e
`32.57 de
`11.90 abc
`15.10 abc
`15.50 abc
`09.67 ab
`18.60 c
`16.27 bc
`10.93 ab
`09.13 a
`
`indexBC
`severity
`Disease
`
`10.13 c
`12.40 a
`12.20 ab
`12.40 a
`12.53 a
`11.87 ab
`11.20 bc
`12.07 ab
`12.93 a
`12.13 ab
`12.20 ab
`12.00 ab
`12.27 ab
`
`2.73 g
`1.63 ef
`1.53 de
`1.87 ef
`1.97 f
`0.73 ab
`0.90 abc
`0.90 abc
`0.60 a
`1.20 cd
`1.03 bc
`0.73 ab
`0.60 a
`
`05.60 f
`05.67 f
`06.80 def
`05.60 f
`06.27 ef
`10.40 abc
`08.53 cde
`06.93 def
`12.20 a
`9.00 bcd
`9.00 bcd
`11.07 ab
`11.93 a
`
`10 sprays
`
`08.07 e
`09.80 d
`10.13 d
`9.20 de
`9.67 d
`12.93 bc
`12.07 c
`12.80 bc
`13.87 ab
`12.13 c
`12.47 bc
`14.60 a
`15.07 a
`
`6 sprays
`
`1420 + 643 + 85.20
`
`0542
`2100
`2715
`1248
`4115
`4115
`2445
`4075
`2853
`4075
`6520
`8150
`
`13. Tea tree oil + canola oil (Synertrol Horti Oil) + nonyl phenol (Agral)
`12. Di-1-p-menthene (Nu-Film-17)
`11. Methyl ethyl esters of canola oil (Synertrol Excel)
`10. Canola oil (Synertrol Horti Oil)
`9. Emulsified vegetable oil (Xtend Multipurpose Spray Oil)
`8. Petroleum oil (Fuchs Spray Oil Universal)
`7. Petroleum oil (SACOA Summer Oil)
`6. Paraffinic oil (SACOA Bioprotect)
`5. Paraffinic oil (SACOA Biopest Paraffin Oil)
`4. Paraffinic oil (BP Miscible Banana Misting Oil)
`3. Paraffinic oil (BP Miscible Banana Misting Oil)
`2. Paraffinic oil (BP Miscible Banana Misting Oil)
`1. Paraffinic oil (BP Miscible Banana Misting Oil)
`
`Total leaves per
`
`plantB
`
`Average leaf
`
`ratingB
`
`spotted after:B
`Youngest leaf
`
`(g a.i./ha)
`
`Rate
`
`TreatmentA
`
`Table 3.Effect of mineral oils and plant-derived adjuvants, and rates of application, on yellow Sigatoka of banana following assessments of the youngest leaf spotted after 6 and
`
`10 spray applications, and the average leaf rating, total number of leaves per plant, and disease severity 2 weeks prior to harvest
`
`

`

`382
`
`Australasian Plant Pathology
`
`L. L. Vawdrey et al.
`
`Table 4. Effect of mancozeb formulations and rates of application in the control of yellow Sigatoka following
`assessments of the average leaf rating and disease severity 2 weeks prior to harvest
`
`TreatmentA
`
`1. Mancozeb (Dithane DF)
`2. Mancozeb (Dithane DF)
`3. Mancozeb (Dithane DF)
`4. Mancozeb (Dithane DF)
`5. Mancozeb (Dithane DF)
`6. Mancozeb (Dithane DF)
`7. Mancozeb (Dithane OC)
`8. Mancozeb (Dithane OC)
`9. Mancozeb (Penncozeb 420 SC)
`10. Mancozeb (Penncozeb 420 SC)
`11. Mancozeb (Penncozeb 420 SC)
`12. Mancozeb (Dithane M45)
`13. Mancozeb (Dithane M45)
`
`Rate
`(g a.i./ha)
`
`Average leaf ratingB
`
`Disease severity
`indexBC
`
`1000
`1250
`1500
`1760
`2000
`2500
`1000
`1250
`1260
`1500
`1760
`1250
`1760
`
`1.37 a
`1.21 ab
`1.08 abcd
`0.91 bcd
`0.84 cd
`0.87 bcd
`1.15 abc
`0.85 cd
`0.79 d
`0.73 d
`0.93 bcd
`0.91 bcd
`1.05 abcd
`
`22.77 a
`20.23 ab
`17.97 abcd
`15.00 bcd
`14.03 cd
`14.60 bcd
`19.23 abc
`14.27 cd
`13.13 d
`12.13 d
`16.57 bcd
`15.93 bcd
`17.42 abcd
`
`AAll treatments, except Dithane OC which contains 412 g/L petroleum oil, were mixed with paraffinic oil to
`achieve an equivalent rate of 4075 g a.i./ha.
`BMeans in the same column followed by the same letter are not significantly different (P > 0.05).
`CDisease severity index = [(Sum nb)(N–1) × T] × 100 (see Table 3 for definition of terms).
`
`Data analysis
`
`ANOVA was used to analyse the YLS, total number of leaves,
`average leaf spot rating, and disease severity index data.
`
`Results
`Mineral oil and plant-derived adjuvants, and rates of
`application of mineral oil
`YLS assessments on non-fruiting plants after six spray
`applications showed that BP Miscible Banana Misting Oil
`used at 8150 and 6520 g a.i./ha was more effective (P < 0.05)
`than all treatments except SACOA Biopest at 4075 g a.i./ha
`(Table 3). Both BP Miscible Banana Misting Oil and Fuchs
`Spray Oil Universal used at the recommended rate of
`4075 mL a.i./ha were more effective than Synertrol Excel at
`2100 g a.i./ha, Nu-Film-17 at 542 g a.i./ha, Xtend
`Multipurpose Spray Oil at 1248 g a.i./ha, Synertrol Horti Oil
`at 2715 g a.i./ha, and tea tree oil + Synertrol Horti Oil + the
`wetting agent Agral at 1420 + 643 + 85.2 g a.i/ha. All the
`mineral oil treatments were more effective than those
`treatments containing plant-derived products.
`The assessment of YLS on fruiting plants after 10 spray
`applications showed that BP Miscible Banana Misting Oil
`and Fuchs Spray Oil Universal used at the recommended rate
`at 4075 g a.i./ha were more effective (P < 0.05) than all
`treatments using plant-derived products except Synertrol
`Excel at 2100 g a.i./ha. BP Miscible Banana Misting Oil used
`at 8150 and 6520 g a.i./ha was more effective (P < 0.05) than
`all treatments except SACOA Biopest at 4075 g a.i./ha and
`Fuchs Spray Oil Universal at 4075 g a.i./ha. All mineral oil
`treatments except SACOA Bioprotect at 2445 g a.i./ha were
`more effective than all treatments containing plant-derived
`products except Synertrol Excel at 2100 g a.i./ha.
`
`The disease severity index (DSI) and the average leaf
`rating (ALR) recorded 2 weeks prior to harvest (Table 3)
`confirmed most of the results from the YLS assessments.
`This result was largely due to ongoing disease pressure and
`the continued development of the disease in the experimental
`area. The ALR showed all the mineral oil treatments except
`BP Miscible Banana Misting Oil at 2853 g a.i./ha were more
`effective (P < 0.05) than treatments containing plant-derived
`products. Both the ALR and the DSI showed that plots
`treated with BP Miscible Banana Misting Oil and Fuchs
`Spray Oil Universal at 4075 g a.i./ha were significantly less
`affected by leaf spot (P < 0.05) than those plots treated with
`the plant-derived products. Increasing rates of application of
`BP Miscible Banana Misting Oil resulted in improved
`control of yellow Sigatoka. There were significantly fewer
`leaves (P < 0.05) in plots treated with tea tree oil + Synertrol
`Horti Oil + Agral than plots treated with all the other
`products except SACOA Summer Oil at 4075 g a.i./ha.
`
`Mancozeb formulations and rates of application
`The YLS assessment on non-fruiting and fruiting plants
`showed there was no significant difference (P > 0.05)
`between treatments (Table 4). There was also no significant
`reduction (P > 0.05) in total leaf number. The ALR and DSI
`recorded within 2 weeks of harvest showed Penncozeb SC at
`1260 and 1500 g a.i./ha was more effective (P < 0.05) than
`both Dithane DF at 1000 and 1250 g a.i./ha, and Dithane OC
`at 1000 g a.i./ha. Dithane DF at 1000 g a.i./ha was less
`effective (P < 0.05) than Dithane DF at 1760, 2000 and
`2500 g a.i./ha. Dithane DF applied at 1250 g a.i./ha was less
`effective (P < 0.05) than Dithane DF at 2000 g a.i./ha. There
`
`

`

`Control of Mycosphaerella musicola in bananas
`
`Australasian Plant Pathology
`
`383
`
`were no significant differences between the other rates and
`formulations.
`
`Discussion
`Disease levels were relatively uniform across both
`experimental sites with moderate to severe leaf damage
`occurring in the guard rows. All treatments except tea tree oil
`+ Synertrol Horti Oil provided effective levels of control
`with ALRs of < 2.0 (Table 3). An ALR above 2.5–2.8
`(adjusted for modified grades used in this experiment) is
`required before any loss of fruit quality/yield would result
`(Ramsey et al. 1987).
`Increasing the rates of application of paraffinic oil as BP
`Miscible Banana Misting Oil significantly improved the
`level of disease control. Guzman and Romero (1996) also
`reported that spray applications of mineral oil at 10 and
`15 L/ha gave significantly better control of black Sigatoka
`(caused by Mycosphaerella fijiensis) than 5 L/ha. However,
`the continued use of mineral oil at rates of application greater
`than the recommended rate of 5 L/ha should be treated with
`caution as this could lead to yield loss due to phytotoxicity.
`Israeli et al. (1993) showed that 12 applications of a highly
`refined banana spray oil at 8 L/ha reduced fruit yield by
`5–8%. It should be noted, however, that this research was
`conducted under hot dry conditions in the Jordan Valley in
`Israel. Plant stress caused by high
`temperature and
`inadequate moisture is known to enhance banana spray oil
`phytotoxicity (Stover 1972).
`In our research, all the paraffinic oil treatments were
`superior to the plant oil treatments and the non-ionic sticker
`di-1-p-menthene as Nu-Film-17. The superiority of
`paraffinic oils in controlling leaf spot diseases has been
`known for many years (Stover 1990). The activity of this
`group of oils has been shown to delay symptom development
`and inhibit lesion growth by reducing spore germination,
`germ-tube growth and sporulation of the Sigatoka pathogen
`(Stover 1990). In addition to the fungicidal activity of
`paraffinic oil,
`researchers have also
`reported
`that
`applications of paraffinic oil may also stimulate the banana’s
`natural defence mechanisms (Meredith 1970).
`The poor result achieved with the plant oils and the
`non-ionic sticker Nu-Film-17 was not surprising. Guyot and
`Cuille (1954) reported that plant oils were effective against
`yellow Sigatoka, but Calpouzos (1968) reported that heavy
`applications of glycerol, which is derived from these oils,
`failed to control the disease. Researchers have suggested that
`plant oils may help to prevent plant disease by coating the
`leaf surface and in so doing impede disease development
`(Sams and Deyton 2002). The non-ionic sticker Nu-Film-17
`is promoted as a deposition agent,
`sticker and
`activity-extender for contact fungicides, and is offered to
`growers as an alternative to mineral oil. In our research, the
`superior leaf spot control achieved with the paraffinic oils
`compared with both the plant oils and the non-ionic sticker
`
`was most likely due to the complex mode of action of the
`paraffinic oils.
`Early research showed that the mixing of the wettable
`powder formulation of mancozeb in mineral oil alone or in
`an oil-in-water emulsion was required for a high level of leaf
`spot control (Stover and Simmonds 1987). Later, the
`introduction of flowable formulations of mancozeb with
`their excellent sticking properties proved less effective when
`used without oil (Stover and Simmonds 1987). Recently,
`there has also been a great deal of interest in the liquid
`formulations of mancozeb and their reputed improved
`efficacy resulting from improved spray coverage due to a
`smaller particle size
`(E. Hayes, Nufarm, personal
`communication). However, under the conditions experienced
`in our experiment, there was no significant difference
`between the four formulations of mancozeb when used at the
`recommended rate of 1760 g a.i./ha. However, the DSI and
`the ALR assessments conducted at the conclusion of the
`experiment showed some differences between rates of
`application of the various formulations of mancozeb. The
`lower rates of mancozeb as Dithane DF were less effective
`than the higher rates of Dithane DF in controlling yellow
`Sigatoka. Based on our research findings, the advice to
`growers is that they continue to use mancozeb in an
`oil-in-water emulsion at the previously recommended rate of
`1760 g a.i./ha with an equivalent rate of 4075 g a.i./ha
`paraffinic oil to control yellow Sigatoka of banana.
`
`Acknowledgements
`the Queensland Fruit and
`Financial support from
`Vegetable Growers and Horticuture Australia Limited is
`gratefully acknowledged. Thanks also to SACOA, Grow
`Green, Organic Crop Protectants, Victorian Chemical
`Company and Lefroy Valley for some financial assistance
`and the supply of the compounds tested.
`
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`Received 31 October 2003, accepted 12 February 2004
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`http://www.publish.csiro.au/journals/app
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