No. 25-449
`In the
`Supreme Court of the United States
`On PetitiOn fOr a Writ Of CertiOrari tO the United StateS
`COUrt Of aPPealS fOr the diStriCt Of COlUmbia CirCUit
`A
`(800) 274-3321 • (800) 359-6859
`BRIEF OF AMICI CURIAE PROF. SHLOMIT
`YANISKY-RAVID, PROF. LAWRENCE LESSIG,
`PROF. SEAN O’BRIEN, PROF. BULELANI JILI,
`DR. PATRICIA V ARGAS LEÓN, DR. GE CHEN,
`DR. EIRLIANI ABDUL RAHMAN, PROF.
`JONATHAN MARCELINUS D’SILV A,
`PENN STATE DICKINSON LAW SCHOOL
`IP CLINIC, AND 5 OTHERS
`IN SUPPORT OF PETITIONER
`387137
`STEPHEN THALER,
`Petitioner,
`v.
`SHIRA PERLMUTTER, REGISTER OF COPYRIGHTS
`AND DIRECTOR OF THE UNITED STATES
`COPYRIGHT OFFICE, et al.,
`Respondents.
`MIchael R. WeIneR
`Counsel of Record
`Ryan n. Phelan
`Isaku BegeRt
`MaRshall, geRsteIn & BoRun, llP
`233 South Wacker Drive, Suite 6300
`Chicago, IL 60606
`(312) 474-6300
`mweiner@marshallip.com
`Counsel for Amici Curiae
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`i
`TABLE OF CONTENTS
`Page
`TABLE OF CONTENTS.......................... i
`TABLE OF CITED AUTHORITIES .............. iii
`INTEREST OF AMICI CURIAE.................. 1
`SUMMARY OF ARGUMENT ..................... 1
`ARGUMENTS .................................. 2
`I. The Perils of Excluding AI-Generated
`Works from Authorship and Copyright
` Protection ................................. 2
`II. Denial of Copyright Protection for AI-
`Generated Works Would Lead to Severe
` Adverse Economic Consequences............. 4
`III. Copyright Office Guidelines are Unclear and
` Unmanageable by Applicants ................ 7
`IV . Uncertainty Regarding Rights to AI-
`Generated Works Causes a Chilling Effect
` that Harms the Economy................... 10
`V. Excluding AI Works May Disproportionately
`Harm Individual Creators and Small
` Businesses, Exacerbating Inequality......... 11
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`ii
`Table of Contents
`Page
`VI. C opyright Law Long Predates the
` A dvancement of AI Technology ............. 13
`VII. The Supreme Court Broadened its
`Interpretations of Copyright Upon
`Introduction of New Technologies to
` Sa feguard Creativity ...................... 13
`VIII. The Goals of Copyright Regime.............. 15
`IX. A uthorship of AI-Generated Works
`Under Work Made for Hire Doctrine, the
` “C ontrol” and “Predictability” Tests ......... 17
`X. A I Can Be Deemed Authors for Doing
` t he Lion’s Share of Work ................... 19
`XI. C omparative Overview ..................... 19
`XI I . L oper Bright and the Future of
`Copyright: Affirming the Supreme
`Court’s Exclusive Authority to Interpret
` A mbiguous Statutes ....................... 26
`CONCLUSION ................................. 28
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`iii
`TABLE OF CITED AUTHORITIES
`Page
`Cases
`ABC, Inc. v. Aereo, Inc.,
` 573 U.S. 431 (2014)............................ 14
`Bleistein v. Donaldson Lithographing Co.,
` 188 U.S. 239 (1903)............................ 14
`Burrow-Giles Lithographic Co. v. Sarony,
` 111 U.S. 53 (1884).......................... 13, 14
`Feist Publ’ns v. Rural Tel. Serv.,
` 499 U.S. 340 (1991)............................ 16
`Google LLC v. Oracle Am., Inc.,
` 593 U.S. 1 (2021).............................. 14
`Loper Bright Enters. v. Raimondo,
` 603 U.S. 369 (2024)...................... 2, 26, 27
`Marbury v. Madison,
` 5 U.S. 137 (1803).............................. 29
`Mazer v. Stein,
` 347 U.S. 201 (1954).......................... 2, 15
`Naruto v. Slater,
` 888 F .3d 4186 (9th Cir. 2018)..................... 6
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`iv
`Cited Authorities
`Page
`Rearden LLC v. Walt Disney Co.,
` 293 F . Supp. 3d 963 (N.D. Cal. 2018) ............. 19
`Thaler v. Perlmutter,
` 130 F .4th 1039 (D.C. Cir. 2025)........ 12, 25, 26, 27
`Thaler v. Perlmutter,
` 687 F . Supp. 3d 140 (D.D.C. 2023) ............. 7, 26
`Constitutional Provisions
`u.s. const. art. I, §8, cl. 8 ......................... 2
`Statutes, Rules and Regulations
`17 U.S.C. §101................................... 17
`17 U.S.C. §102(a) ................................ 26
`17 U.S.C. §201 .................................. 17
`17 U.S.C. §201(b) ................................ 17
`17 U.S.C. §408 .................................. 27
`17 U.S.C. §701(a)................................. 27
`17 U.S.C. §701(b)(2) .............................. 27
`42 U.S.C. §12111(9) .............................. 12
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`v
`Cited Authorities
`Page
`aRk. code ann. §18-4-101 (West 2025) ............. 24
`Sup. Ct. R. 37.2 .................................. 1
`Sup. Ct. R. 37.6 .................................. 1
`h.R. ReP. no. 94-1476, at 116 (1976) ................ 13
`Other Authorities
`Artists in the Workforce , nat’l endoWMent foR
`the aRts 10 (July 2022), https://www.arts.gov/
`sites/default/files/Artists-in-the-Workforce-
`Selected-Demographic-Characteristics-
` Prior-to-COVID%E2%80%9019.pdf ............. 12
`Zhou Bo, Artificial Intelligence and Copyright
`Protection – Judicial Practice in Chinese
`Courts , WoR l d I n t e l l. P R o P. oR g . 4
`(2020), https://www.wipo.int/export/sites/
`www/about-ip/en/artificial_intelligence/
` conversation_ip_ai/pdf/ms_china_1_en.pdf ....... 23
`Annemarie Bridy, The Evolution of Authorship:
`Work Made by Code , 39 coluM. J.l. & aRts
` 395 (2016).................................... 17
`Brief for Stephen Thaler as Amici Curiae
`Supporting Appellee at 34–35, Thaler v.
` Perlmutter, 130 F .4th 1039 (D.C. Cir. 2025) ....... 12
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`vi
`Cited Authorities
`Page
`Per L. Bylund & Matthew McCaffery, A Theory
`of Entrepreneurship and Institutional
` Uncertainty , 32 J. Bus. VentuRIng 461 (2017) ..... 10
`Joseph Briggs & Devesh Kodnani, The Potentially
`Large Effects of Artificial Intelligence on
`Economic Growth , gold Ma n sachs 9–10
`(Mar. 26, 2023), https://www.gspublishing.
`com/content/research/en/reports/2023/03/27/
` d64e052b-0f6e-45d7-967b-d7be35fabd16.pdf ...... 10
`Bundesverwaltungsgericht [BVGE] [Federal
`Administrative Court] June 26, 2025, 12,
` 15 B-2532/2024 (Switz.) .................... 24, 25
`MIles chandleR et al., aI In BusIness 5 (2025) ..... 11
`常熟市人民法院 [Changshu Municipal People’s
`Court], 关注！常熟法院作出江苏首 例 、全 国 第 二
`例 AIGC 著作权侵权案件，实现“人与科技”美美与
`共 [Changshu Court has rendered AI-generated-
`content copyright-infringement judgment ],
`WeiXin [WeChat] (Mar. 7, 2025), https://mp.weixin.
` qq.com/s/qKuRwkVFwGem8UaVjfyjiA ....... 22-23
`Chosakukenh ō [Copyright Act], Act No. 48
` of 1970, art. 2(i) (Japan)........................ 21
`Chosakukenh ō [Copyright Act], Act No. 48
` of 1970, art. 30-4 (Japan)....................... 22
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`vii
`Cited Authorities
`Page
`M I c h a e l c h u I e t a l . , t h e ec o n oM Ic
` PotentIal of geneRatIVe aI 10 (2023)............ 5
`Clôture de la première journée du Sommet
`pour l’action sur l’IA [Closing of the first
`day of the AI Action Summit ], ÉlysÉe (Feb.
`10, 2025), https://www.elysee.fr/emmanuel-
`macron/2025/02/10/cloture-de-la-premiere-
` journee-du-sommet-pour-laction-sur-lia ......... 21
`Complaint at 21, Allen v. Perlmutter, No.
` 1:24cv2665 (D. Colo filed Sept. 26, 2024)........... 9
`Consultation outcome , u.k. I ntell . P RoP.
`off Ice , ¶¶29–30 (June 28, 2022), https://
`www.gov.uk/government/consultations/
`artificial-intelligence-and-ip-copyright-
`and-patents/outcome/artificial-intelligence-
`and-intellectual-property-copyright-and-
` patents-government-response-to-consultation .... 20
`Copyright Act 98 of 1978 §1 (S. Afr.)................ 20
`Copyright Act 1957, §2(d)(vi) (India)................ 20
`Copyright Act 1994, §5(2)(a) (N.Z.)................. 20
`Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988,
` c. I, §9(3) (UK) ............................... 19
`Copyright and Related Rights Act 2000
` (Act No. 28/2000), §§2(1), 21(f) (Ir.) .............. 19
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`viii
`Cited Authorities
`Page
`著作权法 [Copyright Law] (promulgated by the
`Standing Comm. Nat’l People’s Cong., Feb 26,
` 2010, effective April 1, 2010), art. 11 (China) ...... 23
`Copyright Office, Re: Second Request for
`Reconsideration for Refusal to Register
` SURYAST (SR # 1-11016599571 ................. 8
`Copyright Office, Re: Zarya of the Dawn (Registration
`# VAu001480196) (Feb. 21, 2023), https://www.
` copyright.gov/docs/zarya-of-the-dawn.pdf ......... 9
`Copyright Ordinance, (2022) Cap. 528, §11(3)
`(H.K.)Copyright and Artificial Intelligence ,
`u. s. co P y R Ig h t of fIc e, https://www.
` copyright.gov/ai/ (last visited Sept. 21, 2025) .. 3, 20, 28
`Copyright Registration Guidance: Works Containing
`Material Generated by Artificial Intelligence,
` 88 Fed. Reg. 16190 (Mar. 16, 2023) .......... 8, 9, 28
`Correspondence ID: 1-5PR2XKJ) (Dec. 11,
`2023) https://www.copyright.gov/rulings-
` filings/review-board/docs/SURYAST.pdf.......... 8
`Creative and AI sectors kick-off next steps in finding
`solutions to AI and copyright, u.k. goV’t (July
`13, 2025), https://www.gov.uk/government/
`news/creative-and-ai-sectors-kick-off-next-
` steps-in-finding-solutions-to-ai-and-copyright..... 20
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`ix
`Cited Authorities
`Page
`Emin Dinlersoz & Nathan Goldschlag, Is AI
`Use Increasing Among Small Businesses ,
`u.s. census B uReau (Dec. 3, 2024), https://
`www.census.gov/newsroom/blogs/research-
` matters/2024/12/ai-use-small-businesses.html .... 11
`Disability Impacts All of Us , cdc (July
`15, 2024), https://www.cdc.gov/disability-
`and-health/articles-documents/disability-
` impacts-all-of-us-infographic.html .............. 12
`Emma Duester & Ruyin Zhang, Digital and
`AI transformation in the contemporary art
` industry in China, 3(2) aRts & coMMc’n 1 (2024).. 24
`General Understanding on AI and Copyright
`in Japan , agency foR cultu Ral aff. 16–
`17 (May 2024), https://www.bunka.go.jp/
` english/policy/copyright/pdf/94055801_01.pdf ..... 22
`Generative AI could raise global GDP by 7% ,
`goldMan sachs (Apr. 5, 2023), https://www.
`goldmansachs.com/insights/articles/generative-
` ai-could-raise-global-gdp-by-7-percent.html ....... 5
`Kent Hubert et al., The current state of
`artificial intelligence generative language
`models is more creative than humans on
` divergent thinking tasks, 14 scI. ReP. 1 (2024) ..... 3
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`x
`Cited Authorities
`Page
`Justin Hughes, The Personality Interest of
`Artists and Inventors in Intellectual Property,
` 16 caRdozo aRts & ent. l.J. 81 (1998)........... 15
`李某某诉刘某某侵害作品署名权 , 信息网络传播
`权纠纷案 [Li v. Liu, Dispute over Copyright
`Infringement of the Right of Attribution and
`Right of Information Network Distribution of
`Works] (Beijing Internet Ct. Nov. 27, 2023),
`https://english.bjinternetcourt.gov.cn/pdf/
`BeijingInternetCourtCivilJudgment112792023.
` pdf ......................................... 22
`Tucker J. Marion et al., When Generative
`AI Meets Product Development , 66 MI t
` s loan MgMt. ReV. 14 (2024) ..................... 5
`Atreya Mathur, Recent Developments in AI,
`Art & Copyright , ctR fo R aRt l. (Mar.
`4, 2025), https://itsartlaw.org/art-law/
`recent-developments-in-ai-art-copyright-
` copyright-office-report-new-registrations/......... 8
`Clare McAndrew, Arts Economics, The Art
`Basel & UBS Art Market Report 2025 24
` (Jeni Fulton & Lesley Kilmurray eds., 2025)...... 24
`Colleen McClain et al., How the U.S. Public and AI
`Experts View Artificial Intelligence, PeW Rsch.
`ctR. (Apr. 3, 2025), https://www.pewresearch.
`org/internet/2025/04/03/how-the-us-public-
` and-ai-experts-view-artificial-intelligence/ ........ 6
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`xi
`Cited Authorities
`Page
`国务院关于印发 新一代人工智能 发展规划的通
`知 [ Notice of the State Council on Issuing
`the New Generation Artificial Intelligence
`Development Plan], chIna st. councIl 12 (July
`20, 2017) https://d1y8sb8igg2f8e.cloudfront.
` net/documents/translation-fulltext-8.1.17.pdf ..... 23
`Shira Perlmutter, foreward to u.s. coPyRIght
`offIce, coPyRIght and aRtIfIcIal IntellIgence
` PaRt 1 (2024) .................................. 3
`Policy questionnaire on the relationship between
`generative Artificial Intelligence and copyright
`and related rights , councIl of the e.u. 16 –17
`(Dec. 20, 2024), https://data.consilium.europa.
` eu/doc/document/ST-16710-2024-REV-1/en/pdf .... 21
`Proposition de loi no 1630 du 12 septembre 2023
`visant à encadrer l’intelligence artificielle par
`le droit d’auteur [bill no 1630 of September
`12, 2023, to regulate artificial intelligence
`through copyright law], asseMBlÉe natIonale
`[natIonal asseMBly], https://www.assemblee-
`nationale.fr/dyn/16/textes/l16b1630_
` proposition-loi# (last visited July 31, 2025) ....... 21
`Dale Rappaneau, Art-generating AI as an
`accessibility tool for disabled artists ,
`t h e t e c h t u a lI s t (Jan. 25, 2023),
`https://techtualist.substack.com/p/
` art-generating-ai-as-an-accessibility ............ 12
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`xii
`Cited Authorities
`Page
`Regarding the Ownership of Model Training and
`Content Generated by a Generative Artificial
`Intelligence Tool: Hearing on HB1876 Before
`S. Public Transportation, Technology &
`Legislative Affairs , 95th Gen. Assemb. (Ark.
`2025) (statement by Rep. Scott Richardson),
`https://sg001-harmony.sliq.net/00284/Harmony/
`en/PowerBrowser/PowerBrowserV2/20250414/-
` 1/31088?mediaStartTime=20250414094345 ....... 24
`Alex Singla et al., The state of AI: How
`organizations are rewiring to capture
`value , MckInsey & co. (Mar. 12, 2025)
`https://www.mckinsey.com/capabilities/
` quantumblack/our-insights/the-state-of-ai ......... 4
`Seagull Song, Chinese Court Found AI-Generated
`Pictures Not Copyrightable , kIng & W ood
`Mallesons (Sept. 11, 2025), https://www.
`kwm.com/cn/en/insights/latest-thinking/
`chinese-court-found-ai-generated-pictures-
`not-copyrightable-convergence-with-the-us-
`standard.html (holding against a prompter
` displaying insufficient creative input) ............ 23
`Huileng Tan, AI’s economic boost isn’t showing up in
`GDP, and Goldman says that’s a $115 billion blind
`spot, Bus. InsIdeR (Sept. 15, 2025), https://www.
`businessinsider.com/ai-tech-economy-us-gdp-
` boost-chips-blindspot-goldman-sachs-2025-9 ...... 5
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`xiii
`Cited Authorities
`Page
`The great acceleration: CIO perspectives on
`generative AI , M It t e c. R e V. (Ju ly
`18, 2023) https://www.technologyreview.
`com/2023/07/18/1076423/the-great-
` acceleration-cio-perspectives-on-generative-ai/ .... 6
`Amex Trendex: How Small Businesses Are
`Navigating an Evolving Customer Landscape,
`aM. exPR ess (May 1, 2025), https://www.
`americanexpress.com/en-us/newsroom/
`articles/shop-small/amex-trendex--how-small-
` businesses-are-navigating-an-evolving-cu.html ... 11
`u.s. chaMBeR of coM., unlockIng cReatIVI ty:
`the socIoeconoMIc B enefIts of coPyRIght
` (2024) ........................................ 3
`WondeRcRaft, aI In content cReatIon 5 (2025) ...... 3
`Shlomit Yanisky-Ravid, Generating Rembrandt:
`Artificial Intelligence, Copyright, and
`Accountability in the 3a Era-The Human-
`Like Authors Are Already Here-A New Model,
` 2017 MIch. state l. ReV. 659 (2017) ...... 13, 15, 16,
`17, 18
`Shlomit Yanisky-Ravid, The Hidden Though
`Flourishing Justification of Intellectual
`Property Laws: Distributive Justice,
`National Versus International Approaches ,
` 21 leWIs & claRk l.ReV. 1 (2017)............... 15
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`1
`INTEREST OF AMICI CURIAE 1
`Amici are 14 professors, researchers, and attorneys
`at the forefront of IP and AI. See Appendix I. Collectively,
`they bring decades of experience to bear on this important
`copyright question. Amici have a continuing and abiding
`interest in the general welfare of society and promoting
`and protecting creative expression and industry.
`SUMMARY OF ARGUMENT
`Excluding AI-generated works from copyright
`protection threatens the foundations of American
`creativity, innovation, and economic growth. Copyright’s
`purpose—to promote the progress of science and the
`arts—cannot be served by denying protection to works
`created through AI that now define modern creation. As
`history shows, from photography to software, this Court
`has consistently broadened interpretation to embrace new
`technologies safeguarding artistic advancement.
`The Copyright Office’s rigid, narrow and vague
`guidance has created uncertainty, a chilling effect
`on investment, and severe economic and competitive
`disadvantages for the U.S., including for individual
`creators, small businesses, persons with disabilities, and
`the entire creative industries, that heavily rely on AI.
`Other leading jurisdictions already recognize or adapt
`1. Pursuant to Sup. Ct. R. 37.6, amici state that no counsel for
`any party authored this brief. No entity or person, aside from amici
`and their counsel on this brief, made any monetary contribution
`intended to fund this brief. This brief is being filed more than 10
`days prior to the deadline, which satisfies the notice requirement
`of Sup. Ct. R. 37.2.
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`2
`to protect AI-generated works, leaving the U.S. at risk
`of falling behind.
`This case offers an opportunity for the Court to restore
`legal clarity and reaffirm its constitutional authority
`to interpret ambiguous statutes after Loper Bright ,
`ensuring that administrative agencies do not constrain
`creativity through overreach. Recognizing authorship and
`protection for AI-generated works—whether through the
`work-made-for-hire doctrine or comparable frameworks—
`will align copyright law with its constitutional purpose,
`uphold innovation, and preserve the nation’s leadership in
`global creative industries.
`ARGUMENTS
`I. The Perils of Excluding AI-Generated Works from
`Authorship and Copyright Protection
`The U.S. Constitution empowers Congress “To
`promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by
`securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors
`the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and
`Discoveries,”2 authorizing Congress to create Intellectual
`Property (IP) laws towards that ultimate goal by fostering
`innovation and progress.
`As this Honorable Court noted in Mazer v. Stein, public
`welfare is encouraged “through the talents of authors and
`inventors in ‘Science and useful Arts.’”3 AI can provide this
`encouragement. A recent University of Arkansas study
`2. u.s. const. art. I, §8, cl. 8.
`3. Mazer v. Stein, 347 U.S. 201, 219 (1954).
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`3
`found that OpenAI’s ChatGPT-4 creatively outperformed
`humans in divergent thinking tasks, and noted that other
`researchers found “AI’s creative potential scores within
`the top 1% of human responses in terms of originality,”
`exemplifying the remarkable opportunity AI provides in
`the creative process. 4
`The Copyright Office recently published a three-part
`report acknowledging AI’s use by creative professionals
`in various industries. 5 The Office stated, “[b]y the fall of
`2022, millions of Americans were utilizing generative AI
`systems and services to produce an astonishing array
`of expressive material, including visual art, text, and
`music.”6 A 2025 study by AI-powered audio production
`studio Wondercraft determined over 80% of its users
`implemented AI into their creative workflows, with nearly
`40% using AI throughout their entire projects. 7
`With AI-generated works becoming a mainstream
`feature in the U.S. creative industry, denying copyright
`protection for such works undermines innovation
`and associated industries. 8 Denying protection would
`4. Kent Hubert et al., The current state of artificial intelli -
`gence generative language models is more creative than humans
`on divergent thinking tasks , 14 scI. ReP. 1, 8–9 (2024).
`5. See generally Copyright and Artificial Intelligence , u.s.
`coPyRIght offIce, https://www.copyright.gov/ai/ (last visited
`Sept. 21, 2025).
`6. Shira Perlmutter, foreward to U .S. C o p yri g h t Offi ce,
`coPyRIght and aRtIfIcIal IntellIgence PaRt 1 (2024).
`7. See WondeRcRaft, aI In content cReatIon 5 (2025).
`8. See generally, u.s. chaMBeR of coM., unlockIng cReatIV-
`Ity: the socIoeconoMIc BenefIts of coPyRIght (2024).
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`4
`ultimately erode the goals of copyright law to support
`the broader creative arts ecosystem, including the fields
`of publishing, architecture, software design, visual arts,
`music, and film.
`II. Denial of Copyright Protection for AI-Generated
`Works Would Lead to Severe Adverse Economic
`Consequences
`According to the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, core
`copyright industries are responsible for generating
`billions of dollars annually and employing millions of
`Americans, 9 in 2023 alone contributing approximately
`12.31% ($3.37 trillion) to the U.S. GDP . 10 The copyright
`industry employed approximately 9.91% (21.14 million) of
`the nation’s workforce in 2023, with employees earning
`approximately 50% more wages than the average
`American. 11
`Simultaneously, corporate use of AI grows annually.
`McKinsey & Co. found that 78% of global survey
`respondents used AI in at least one of their business
`functions, like AI-image generation, a 23% increase from
`2023. 12 Broader use of AI can likewise improve efficiency,
`9. See id. at 6.
`10. See id.
`11. See id.
`12. See Alex Singla et al., The state of AI: How organiza -
`tions are rewiring to capture value , MckInsey & co. (Mar. 12,
`2025) https://www.mckinsey.com/capabilities/quantumblack/our-
`insights/the-state-of-ai.
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`5
`with some enterprises seeing such an increase by 30–40%
`in technical development and graphic design. 13
`Generative AI can potentially completely reshape
`creative industries and the U.S. economy. In 2023,
`McKinsey & Co. predicted generative AI could deliver
`a total value of $2.6–$4.4 trillion to the U.S. economy
`when applied across different sectors, especially creative
`industries. 14 In 2023, Goldman Sachs suggested that AI-
`generated works could raise the Global GDP by 7%. 15
`In September 2025, Goldman Sachs now believes AI’s
`impact on the U.S. economy has been greatly understated,
`and could amount to an unaccounted for additional $115
`billion.16
`Technology historically drives new job growth, 17 and
`investment into AI could boost the development of new
`positions. However, a 2025 Pew Research Center Study
`found that 58% of U.S. adults and 56% of AI experts
`believe the U.S. government will not adequately regulate
`13. See Tucker J. Marion et al., When Generative AI Meets
`Product Development , 66 MIt sloan MgMt. ReV. 14, 14–15 (2024).
`14. See MIchael chuI et al., the econoMIc Potent Ial of
`geneRatIVe aI 10 (2023).
`15. See Generative AI could raise global GDP by 7% , gold-
`Man sachs (Apr. 5, 2023), https://www.goldmansachs.com/insights/
`articles/generative-ai-could-raise-global-gdp-by-7-percent.html.
`16. See Huileng Tan, AI’s economic boost isn’t showing up
`in GDP, and Goldman says that’s a $115 billion blind spot , Bus.
`InsIdeR (Sept. 15, 2025), https://www.businessinsider.com/ai-tech-
`economy-us-gdp-boost-chips-blindspot-goldman-sachs-2025-9.
`17. See goldMan sachs, supra note 14.
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`6
`or oversee the use of AI. 18 This data reflects significant
`concerns over the potential consequences arising from
`lack of legal clarity surrounding AI if left unaddressed.
`As various industries continue to produce works using AI,
`clear and predictable policies on copyrightability of AI-
`generated works is critical. Development of AI requires
`executive leaders in organizations and corporations
`to embrace generative AI’s unique opportunities for
`long-term success, where only “[u]nified and consistent
`governance are the rails on which AI can speed forward.”19
`Without copyright protection for AI-generated works
`which are thrown into the public domain, free-riders can
`plagiarize and exploit the works and investments of others
`who remain uncompensated, disincentivizing use of and
`innovation in AI. The Ninth Circuit previously held that
`animals cannot sue under the Copyright Act due largely
`to absent statutory authority, and lack of “humanity”
`implied by family relations and property interests that
`animals typically cannot possess or convey. 20 Practically,
`corporations which lack family relations nonetheless retain
`the right to hold copyrights and sue under copyright law,
`considering the financial interest corporations hold in such
`works. Similarly, while AI lacks traditional “humanity,”
`18. See Colleen McClain et al., How the U.S. Public and AI
`Experts View Artificial Intelligence , PeW Rsch. ctR. (Apr. 3,
`2025), https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2025/04/03/how-
`the-us-public-and-ai-experts-view-artificial-intelligence/.
`19. The great acceleration: CIO perspectives on generative
`AI, MIt tec. ReV. (July 18, 2023) https://www.technologyreview.
`com/2023/07/18/1076423/the-great-acceleration-cio-perspectives-
`on-generative-ai/.
`20. See Naruto v. Slater, 888 F.3d 418, 426 (9th Cir. 2018).
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`7
`like corporations there is a financial interest in an AI’s
`creations for end-users prompting the AI for any number
`of personal, business, or charitable purposes, and real risk
`for AI investments to be exploited by free-riders if left to
`the public domain.
`The U.S. is a leader of creative industries, yet the
`lower court’s interpretation of copyright law requiring
`human authorship threatens future investments in AI and
`disregards the spirit of the Copyright Act. Categorically
`denying copyright protection to such works introduces
`profound uncertainty, disincentivizes innovation, and
`limits the ability of artists to express their works through
`experimental forms of generative AI, subsequently
`hindering artistic, cultural, and technological progress.
`If AI-generated works are not provided copyright, the
`U.S. could lose traditionally risk-averse professionals and
`corporations to other more appealing jurisdictions which
`welcome the use of, and investment in, AI for creative
`works in exchange for copyright protection.
`III. Copyright Office Guidelines are Unclear and
`Unmanageable by Applicants
`The lower court misapplied copyright law by
`construing the human-authorship requirement as
`a prerequisite to copyright registration. 21 With this
`interpretation forcing AI-generated works into the public
`domain without protection. Even authors and companies
`when creating, programming and uploading their data to
`AI system that is independently developed, extensively
`21. See Thaler v. Perlmutter, 130 F.4th 1039, 1051 (D.C. Cir.
`2025).
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`8
`trained, and supplied with proprietary data lose all rights
`and protections over its outputs.
`The interpretation adopted by the lower court
`erroneously follows Copyright Office guidelines which
`vaguely require AI-generated works contain “sufficient
`human authorship” to establish a copyright claim.22 These
`guidelines are unworkable, impracticable, and create
`uncertainty among authors and within the creative
`industries. 23 There appears to be no case in the U.S.
`where copyright protection has been granted for works
`utilizing AI, even when substantial human contribution
`was demonstrated.
`Strict adherence to paradoxical Copyright Office
`guidelines has resulted in several cases where works
`with significant human contribution have been rejected
`copyright protection. User selection and arrangement
`of creative elements in a work were found insufficient
`to establish authorship when AI tools were utilized. 24
`Copyright registration was likewise denied despite user
`control and prompting to properly adjust an AI-generated
`22. See id.; Copyright Registration Guidance: Works Contain-
`ing Material Generated by Artificial Intelligence, 88 Fed. Reg.
`16190, 16192 (Mar. 16, 2023).
`23. See Atreya Mathur, Recent Developments in AI, Art &
`Copyright , ctR foR aRt l. (Mar. 4, 2025), https://itsartlaw.org/
`art-law/recent-developments-in-ai-art-copyright-copyright-office-
`report-new-registrations/.
`24. See Copyright Office, Re: Second Request for Reconsid -
`eration for Refusal to Register SURYAST (SR # 1-11016599571;
`Correspondence ID: 1-5PR2XKJ) (Dec. 11, 2023) https://www.
`copyright.gov/rulings-filings/review-board/docs/SURYAST.pdf.
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`9
`image to achieve the user’s vision. 25 Ongoing District of
`Colorado case Allen v. Perlmutter illustrates that even
`over 600 prompts displaying an applicant’s creative control
`to express his personal conception of an AI-generated
`image was insufficient for the Copyright Office. 26 In
`Dr. Thaler’s case, despite his substantial contributions
`designing, programming, training, and curating his
`AI system, 27 all judicial bodies have denied his creative
`contributions as sufficient, again demonstrating the lack
`of reliable assurances over use of generative AI tools from
`the Copyright Office, and depriving him of rights over the
`very works his efforts enabled.
`The lower court’s contradictory reasoning opposes
`the traditionally broad interpretation of the Copyright
`Act and discourages those in the creative industry
`from publicly sharing their works if using AI, and may
`inadvertently discourage artists from using established
`software such as procedural generation or algorithmic
`assistance programs. With unclear guidance, although the
`Copyright Office’s guidelines necessitate a “case-by-case
`inquiry,”28 they burden applicants who may strive to follow
`their guidelines and ultimately face rejection depending
`on how the guidelines are applied. If this Honorable
`Court finds that such works are indeed distinguishable,
`25. Copyright Office, Re: Zarya of the Dawn (Registration #
`VAu001480196) (Feb. 21, 2023), https://www.copyright.gov/docs/
`zarya-of-the-dawn.pdf.
`26. See Complaint at 21, Allen v. Perlmutter, No. 1:24cv2665
`(D. Colo filed Sept. 26, 2024).
`27. See id. at 1043–44.
`28. See 88 Fed. Reg. at 16192.
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`10
`then given the lack of clear guidance, further clarification
`and concrete guidelines are essential. The Copyright
`Office’s position stems from a narrow interpretation of the
`Supreme Court’s definition of “author” (human only)—an
`interpretation this brief argues is partial and therefore
`flawed, as the work made for hire doctrine reflects.
`IV . Uncertainty Regarding Rights to AI-Generated
`Works Causes a Chilling Effect that Harms the
`Economy
`Academic studies demonstrate that uncertainty
`generally encourages evasive action, exiting of the
`marketplace, and “large-scale adoption of unproductive or
`even destructive entrepreneurship;”29 undesirable effects
`for the U.S. economy. Conversely, even limited copyright
`protection could stimulate the marketplace by reducing
`uncertainty and promoting confidence and stability in
`the market. Most jobs in the arts, design, entertainment,
`sports, and media-related occupations are likely to be
`using AI systems. 30 Where AI is already a pervasive
`element in these industries, this Honorable Court could
`significantly benefit the U.S. by providing clarity on what
`copyright protections AI-generated works are warranted.
`29. Per L. Bylund & Matthew McCaffery, A Theory of Entre-
`preneurship and Institutional Uncertainty , 32 J. Bus. VentuRIng
`461, 472 (2017).
`30. See Joseph Briggs & Devesh Kodnani, The Potentially
`Large Effects of Artificial Intelligence on Economic Growth ,
`goldMan sachs 9–10 (Mar. 26, 2023), https://www.gspublishing.
`com/content/research/en/reports/2023/03/27/d64e052b-0f6e-45d7-
`967b-d7be35fabd16.pdf.
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`11
`V . Excluding AI Works May Disproportionately
`Harm Individual Creators and Small Businesses,
`Exacerbating Inequality
`89% of small businesses in the U.S. are leveraging AI
`for automating tasks relevant to data analysis, marketing,
`and public relations, with 60% seeing positive changes
`in productivity and employee satisfaction. 31 According
`to the Census Bureau, businesses with less than four
`employees increased adoption of AI by 4.6%–5.8% since
`2023, 32 with American Express observing that 38% of
`small businesses expect AI to define top business trends
`for the near future. 33 If AI-generated works are thrown
`into the public domain, small businesses would thus
`experience significant burdens for their use of innovative
`AI technology to increase business efficiency and lower
`operational costs.
`Copyright for AI works would even promote equity and
`level the playing field for artists with disabilities. According
`to the Americans with Disabilities Act, accommodation for
`people with disabilities may include equipment based on
`31. See MIles chandle R et al., aI In BusIness 5 (2025).
`32. See Emin Dinlersoz & Nathan Goldschlag, Is AI Use
`Increasing Among Small Businesses , u.s. census BuReau (Dec.
`3, 2024), https://www.census.gov/newsroom/blogs/research-
`matters/2024/12/ai-use-small-businesses.html.
`33. See Amex Trendex: How Small Businesses Are Navi -
`gating an Evolving Customer Landscape , aM. exPRess (May
`1, 2025), https://www.americanexpress.com/en-us/newsroom/
`articles/shop-small/amex-trendex—how-small-businesses-are-
`navigating-an-evolving-cu.html.
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`12
`an individual’s needs. 34 Where approximately 28.7% of
`all U.S. adults experience some form of disability, 35 and
`6.6% of all U.S. artists had a disability in 2022, 36 AI can
`be such a specialized tool providing an opportunity for
`those otherwise unable to engage in creative processes.
`Audio