— 1989
`
`»H67
`
`INTEL 1016
`
`

`

`THE ART OF ELECTRONICS
`
`Second Edition
`
`

`

`
`
`
`rmaseems
`
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`Ielrceltochheenrec-ceveraeiversactetaieeatesndarspramecemeeral
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`tneomerterte
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`REaITT
`
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`peinSSSAeMATOSteTROOPe,GRSTEpaacneammaert
`
`Paul HOrowitZ saavaro universiry
`Winfield Hill
`ROWLANDINSTITUTE FOR SCIENCE, CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS
`
`since 1584.
`
`The right of the
`University of Cambridge
`to print and sell
`all manner of books
`was granted by
`Henry VII in 1534.
`The University has printed
`and published continuously
`
`CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
`
`Cambridge
`New York Port Chester Melbourne Sydney
`
`

`

`
`
`&gous‘UFitis
`
`que r1 1988
`ThePittBuilding,TrumpingtonskeaOFRYr
`nive ity of Cambrid, a
`
`32 East 57th Street, New York, NY 10022;
`10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Melbourne 3166, Anettalia
`
`Published by the Press Syndicate of
`
`.
`
`© Cambridge University Press 1980, 1989
`
`First published 1980
`Second edition 1989
`
`Printed in the United States of America
`
`Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
`Horowitz, Paul, 1942—
`The art of electronics / Paul Horowitz, Winfield Hill. - 2nd ed.
`p. cm.
`Bibliography: p.
`Includes index.
`
`ISBN 0-521-37095-7
`
`1. Electronics. 2. Electronic circuit design. I. Hill,
`Winfield. JI. Title.
`TK7815.H67
`1989
`621.381 - dcl9
`
`89-468
`CIP
`
`British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
`Horowitz, Paul, 1942-
`Theart of electronics. - 2nd ed.
`
`1. Electronic equipment |
`I. Title II. Hill, Winfield
`621.381
`
`ISBN 0-521-37095-7 hard covers
`
`Bug”
`
`
`
`

`

`
`
`TO CAROL, JACOB, MISHA, AND GINGER
`
`

`

`
`
`“CONTENTS
`
`List of tables
`
`xvi
`
`Preface
`
`xix
`
`Prefaceto first edition
`
`xxi
`
`CHAPTER1
`FOUNDATIONS
`
`1
`
`Introduction
`
`1
`
`Voltage, current, and resistance
`
`2
`
`2
`1.01 Voltage and current
`1.02 Relationship between voltage and
`current: resistors
`4
`8
`1.03 Voltage dividers
`1.04 Voltage and current sources
`1.05 Thévenin’s equivalent circuit
`1.06 Small-signal resistance
`13
`
`11
`
`9
`
`Signals
`
`15
`
`15
`1.07 Sinusoidal signals
`1.08 Signal amplitudes and
`decibels
`16
`1.09 Other signals
`1.10 Logic levels
`1.11 Signal sources
`
`17
`19
`
`19
`
`Capacitors and ac circuits
`
`20
`
`20
`1.12 Capacitors
`1.13 RC circuits: V and J versus
`time
`23
`1.14 Differentiators
`1.15 Integrators
`26
`
`25
`
`Inductors and transformers
`
`28
`
`28
`1.16 Inductors
`1.17 Transformers
`
`28
`
`Impedance and reactance
`
`29
`
`
`
`1.18 Frequency analysis of reactive
`circuits
`30
`35
`1.19 RC filters
`39
`1.20 Phasor diagrams
`1.21 “Poles” and decibels per
`octave
`40
`1.22 Resonantcircuits and active
`filters
`41
`1.23 Other capacitor applications
`1.24 Thévenin’s theorem
`generalized
`44
`
`Diodes and diode circuits 44
`
`42
`
`48
`
`44
`1.25 Diodes
`44
`1.26 Rectification
`45
`1.27 Power-supply filtering
`1.28 Rectifier configurations for power
`supplies
`46
`48
`1.29 Regulators
`1.30 Circuit applications of diodes
`1.31 Inductive loads and diode
`protection
`52
`:
`Other passive components 53
`1.32 Electromechanical devices
`1.33 Indicators
`57
`1.34 Variable components
`Additional exercises
`58
`
`53
`
`57
`
`CHAPTER 2
`TRANSISTORS 61
`
`Introduction
`
`61
`
`2.01 First transistor model: current
`amplifier
`62
`
`Some basictransistor circuits
`
`63
`
`2.02 Transistor switch
`2.03 Emitter follower
`
`63
`65
`
`vii
`
`

`

`viii
`
`CONTENTS
`
`2.04 Emitter followers as voltage
`regulators
`68
`2.05 Emitter follower biasing
`2.06 Transistor current source
`2.07 Common-emitter amplifier
`2.08 Unity-gain phasesplitter
`2.09 Transconductance
`78
`
`69
`72
`76
`
`77
`
`Ebers-Moil model applied to basic
`transistor circuits
`79
`
`79
`
`2.10 Improved transistor model:
`transconductance amplifier
`2.11 The emitter follower revisited
`2.12 The common-emitter amplifier
`revisited 82
`2.13 Biasing the common-emitter
`amplifier
`84
`2.14 Current mirrors
`
`88
`
`Some amplifier building blocks
`
`91
`
`91
`94
`
`2.15 Push-pull output stages
`2.16 Darlington connection
`2.17 Bootstrapping
`96
`98
`2.18 Differential amplifiers
`2.19 Capacitance and Miller effect
`2.20 Field-effect transistors
`104
`
`Basic FET circuits
`
`124
`
`125
`
`3.06 JFET current sources
`3.07 FET amplifiers
`129
`3.08 Source followers
`133
`3.09 FET gate current
`135
`3.10 FETsas variable resistors
`
`138
`
`144
`
`FET switches
`
`140
`
`141
`3.11 FET analog switches
`3.12 Limitations of FET switches
`3.13 Some FET analog switch
`examples
`151.
`3.14 MOSFETlogic and power
`switches
`153
`3.15 MOSFEThandling
`precautions
`169
`
`Self-explanatory circuits
`
`171
`
`3.16 Circuit ideas
`3.17 Bad circuits
`
`171
`171 vskip6pt
`
`CHAPTER 4
`FEEDBACK AND OPERATIONAL
`AMPLIFIERS 175
`
`81
`
`102
`
`Introduction
`
`175
`
`Sometypical transistor circuits
`
`104
`
`104
`2.21 Regulated power supply
`105
`2.22 Temperature controller
`2.23 Simple logic with transistors and
`diodes
`107
`
`Self-explanatory circuits
`
`107
`
`2.24 Good circuits
`2.25 Bad circuits
`Additional exercises
`
`107
`107
`107
`
`4.01 Introduction to feedback
`4.02 Operational amplifiers
`4.03 The golden rules
`177
`
`175
`176
`
`Basic op-amp circuits
`
`177
`
`177
`4.04 Inverting amplifier
`4.05 Noninverting amplifier
`4.06 Follower
`179
`180
`4.07 Current sources
`4.08 Basic cautions for op-amp
`circuits
`182
`
`178
`
`An op-amp smorgasbord
`
`183
`
`CHAPTER 3
`FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS 113
`
`Introduction
`
`113
`
`183
`4.09 Linear circuits
`187
`4.10 Nonlinear circuits
`A detailed look at op-amp behavior
`
`188
`
`114
`
`3.01 FET characteristics
`3.02 FET types
`117
`3.03 Universal FET characteristics
`3.04 FET drain characteristics
`121
`3.05 Manufacturing spread of FET
`characteristics
`122
`
`119
`
`4.11 Departure from ideal op-amp
`performance
`189
`4.12 Effects of op-amp limitations on
`circuit behavior
`193
`4.13 Low-power and programmable
`op-amps
`210
`
`

`

`ix
`CONTENTS
`
`
`A detailed look at selected op-amp
`circuits 213
`
`4.37 Bad circuits
`Additional exercises
`
`250
`251
`
`213
`217
`
`4.14 Logarithmic amplifier
`4.15 Active peak detector
`4.16 Sample-and-hold
`220
`4.17 Active clamp
`221
`4.18 Absolute-value circuit
`4.19 Integrators
`222
`4.20 Differentiators
`224
`Op-amp operation with a single power
`supply 224
`.
`
`221
`
`4.21 Biasing single-supply ac
`amplifiers
`225
`4.22 Single-supply op-amps
`
`225 .
`
`Comparators and Schmitt trigger
`
`229
`
`4.23 Comparators
`4.24 Schmitt trigger
`
`229
`231
`
`Feedbackwith finite-gain amplifiers
`232
`
`232
`4.25 Gain equation
`4.26 Effects of feedback on amplifier
`circuits
`233
`4.27 Two examples of transistor
`amplifiers with feedback
`
`236
`
`238
`Sometypical op-amp circuits
`4.28 General-purpose lab amplifier
`4.29 Voltage-controlled oscillator
`4.30 JFET linear switch with Ron
`compensation 241
`4.31 TTL zero-crossing detector
`4,32 Load-current-sensing circuit
`
`238
`240
`
`242
`242
`
`Feedback amplifier frequency
`compensation
`242
`
`4.33 Gain and phase shift versus
`frequency
`243
`4.34 Amplifier compensation
`methods
`245
`4.35 Frequency response of the feedback
`network
`247
`
`Self-explanatory circuits
`
`250
`
`4.36 Circuit ideas
`
`250
`
`CHAPTER 5
`ACTIVE FILTERS AND
`OSCILLATORS 263
`
`Active filters
`
`263
`
`5.01 Frequency response with RC
`filters
`263
`5.02 Ideal performance with LC
`filters
`265
`5.03 Enter active filters: an
`overview 266
`5.04 Key filter performance
`criteria
`267
`5.05 Filter types
`
`268
`
`Active filter circuits
`
`272
`
`5.06 VCVScircuits 273
`5.07 VCVSfilter design using our
`simplified table
`274
`276
`5.08 State-variable filters
`279
`5.09 Twin-T notch filters
`5.10 Gyratorfilter realizations
`5.11 Switched-capacitorfilters
`
`281
`281
`
`Oscillators
`
`284
`
`284
`
`291
`
`5.12 Introduction to oscillators
`5.13 Relaxation oscillators
`284
`5.14 The classic timer chip:
`the 555
`286
`5.15 Voltage-controlled oscillators
`5.16 Quadrature oscillators
`291
`5.17 Wien bridge and LC
`oscillators
`296
`297
`5.18 LC oscillators
`5.19 Quartz-crystal oscillators
`
`300
`
`Self-explanatorycircuits
`5.20 Circuit ideas
`303
`Additional exercises
`303
`
`303
`
`|
`CHAPTER 6
`VOLTAGE REGULATORS AND POWER
`CIRCUITS
`307
`
`Basic regulator circuits with the
`classic 723
`307
`
`

`

`CONTENTS
`
`307
`6.01 The 723 regulator
`309
`6.02 Positive regulator
`6.03 High-current regulator
`
`311
`
`Heat and power design 312
`
`6.04 Powertransistors and heat
`sinking
`312
`6.05 Foldback current limiting:
`6.06 Overvoltage crowbars
`317
`6.07 Further considerations in high-
`current power-supply design
`6.08 Programmable supplies
`321
`6.09 Power-supply circuit example
`6.10 Other regulator ICs
`325
`
`316
`
`320
`
`323
`
`The unregulated supply
`
`325
`
`6.11 acline components
`6.12 Transformer
`328
`6.13 de components
`329
`
`326
`
`Voltage references
`
`331
`
`332
`6.14 Zener diodes
`6.15 Bandgap (Vgpz) reference
`
`335
`
`Three-terminal and four-terminal
`regulators
`341
`
`341
`
`6.16 Three-terminal regulators
`6.17 Three-terminal adjustable
`regulators
`344
`6.18 Additional comments about
`3-terminal regulators
`345
`6.19 Switching regulators and dc-dc
`converters
`355
`
`Special-purpose power-supply
`circuits 368
`
`374
`
`368
`6.20 High-voltage regulators
`6.21 Low-noise, low-drift supplies
`6.22 Micropower regulators
`376
`6.23 Flying-capacitor (charge pump)
`voltage converters
`377
`6.24 Constant-current supplies
`6.25 Commercial power-supply
`modules
`382
`
`379
`
`Self-explanatory circuits 384
`
`6.26 Circuit ideas
`6.27 Bad circuits
`Additional exercises
`
`384
`384
`384
`
`CHAPTER7
`PRECISION CIRCUITS AND LOW-NOISE
`TECHNIQUES
`391
`
`Precision op-amp design techniques
`391
`
`7.01 Precision versus dynamic
`range
`391
`392
`7.02 Error budget
`7.03 Example circuit: precision amplifier
`with automatic null offset
`392
`7.04 A precision-design error
`budget
`394
`395
`7.05 Component errors
`396
`7.06 Amplifier input errors
`403
`7.07 Amplifier output errors
`7.08 Auto-zeroing (chopper-stabilized)
`amplifiers
`415
`
`Differential and instrumentation
`amplifiers
`421
`
`7.09 Differencing amplifier
`7.10 Standard three-op-amp
`instrumentation amplifier
`
`421
`
`425
`
`Amplifier noise 428
`
`430
`7.11 Origins and kinds of noise
`7.12 Signal-to-noise ratio and noise
`figure
`433
`7.13 Transistor amplifier voltage and
`current noise
`436
`7.14 Low-noise design with
`transistors
`438
`7.15 FET noise
`443
`445
`7.16 Selecting low-noise transistors
`7.17 Noise in differential and feedback
`amplifiers
`445
`
`Noise measurements and noise
`sources
`449
`
`7.18 Measurement without a noise
`source
`449
`7.19 Measurement with noise
`source
`450
`452
`7.20 Noise and signal sources
`7.21 Bandwidth limiting and rms voltage
`measurement
`453
`7.22 Noise potpourri
`454
`
`

`

`xi
`CONTENTS
`
`
`Interference: shielding and
`grounding
`455
`
`455
`7.23 Interference
`457
`7.24 Signal grounds
`7.25 Grounding between
`instruments
`457
`
`Self-explanatory circuits
`
`466
`
`466
`7.26 Circuit ideas
`Additional exercises 466
`
`CHAPTER 8
`DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
`
`471
`
`Basic logic concepts
`
`471
`
`471
`
`8.01 Digital versus analog
`8.02 Logic states
`472
`8.03 Number codes
`473
`478
`8.04 Gates and truth tables
`8.05 Discrete circuits for gates
`480
`8.06 Gate circuit example
`481
`8.07 Assertion-level logic notation
`
`482
`
`TTL and CMOS
`
`484
`
`484
`
`8.08 Catalog of common gates
`8.09 IC gate circuits
`485
`8.10 TTL and CMOS
`486
`_ characteristics
`8.11 Three-state and open-collector
`devices
`487
`
`Combinational logic
`
`490
`
`491
`8.12 Logic identities
`8.13 Minimization and Karnaugh
`maps
`492
`8.14 Combinational functions available
`asICs
`493
`8.15 Implementing arbitrary truth
`tables
`500
`
`Sequential logic
`
`504
`
`8.16 Devices with memory:flip-
`flops
`504
`507
`8.17 Clockedflip-flops
`8.18 Combining memory andgates:
`sequential logic
`512
`8.19 Synchronizer
`515
`
`Monostable multivibrators
`
`517
`
`517
`8.20 One-shot characteristics
`8.21 Monostable circuit example
`8.22 Cautionary notes about
`monostables
`519
`8.23 Timing with counters
`
`522
`
`519
`
`Sequential functions available as
`ICs
`523
`
`523
`
`8.24 Latches and registers
`8.25 Counters
`524
`525
`8.26 Shift registers
`527
`8.27 Sequential PALs
`8.28 Miscellaneous sequential
`functions
`541
`
`Sometypical digital circuits
`
`544
`
`8.29 Modulo-7 counter: a timing
`example
`544
`8.30 Multiplexed LED digital
`display
`546
`8.31 Sidereal telescope drive
`8.32 An n-pulse generator
`
`548
`548
`
`Logic pathology 551
`
`551
`8.33 dc problems
`552
`8.34 Switching problems
`8.35 Congenital weaknesses of TTL and
`CMOS
`554
`Self-explanatory circuits
`
`556
`
`8.36 Circuit ideas
`8.37 Bad circuits
`Additional exercises
`
`556
`556
`556
`
`CHAPTER9
`DIGITAL MEETS ANALOG 565
`
`CMOSand TTLlogic interfacing
`
`565
`
`9.01 Logic family chronology
`9.02 Input and output
`570
`characteristics
`9.03 Interfacing between logic
`families
`572
`9.04 Driving CMOS amd TTL
`inputs
`575
`9.05 Driving digital logic from
`comparators and op-amps
`
`565
`
`577
`
`

`

`CONTENTS
`xii
`
`
`9.06 Some commentsabout logic
`inputs
`579
`580
`9.07 Comparators
`9.08 Driving external digital loads from
`CMOS and TTL
`582
`9.09 NMOSLSIinterfacing
`9.10 Opto-electronics
`590
`
`588
`
`Digital signals and long wires
`
`599
`
`9.11 On-board interconnections
`9.12 Intercard connections
`601
`9.13 Data buses
`602
`9.14 Driving cables
`
`603
`
`599
`
`Analog/digital conversion
`
`612
`
`9.15 Introduction to A/D
`conversion
`612
`9.16 Digital-to-analog converters
`(DACs)
`614
`9.17 Time-domain (averaging)
`DACs
`618
`619
`9.18 Multiplying DACs
`619
`9.19 Choosing a DAC
`9.20 Analog-to-digital converters
`9.21 Charge-balancing techniques
`9.22 Some unusual A/D and: D/A
`converters
`630
`9.23 Choosing an ADC 631
`
`621
`626
`
`Some A/D conversion examples
`
`636
`
`9.24 16-Channel A/D data-acquisition
`system 636
`638
`9.25 34-Digit voltmeter
`9.26 Coulomb meter
`640
`
`Phase-locked loops
`
`641
`
`9.27 Introduction to phase-locked
`loops
`641
`646
`9.28 PLL design
`9.29 Design example: frequency
`multiplier
`647
`9.30 PLL capture and lock
`9.31 Some PLL applications
`
`651
`652
`
`Pseudo-random bit sequences and noise
`generation
`655
`
`9.32 Digital noise generation
`
`655
`
`9.33 Feedback shift register
`sequences
`655
`9.34 Analog noise generation from
`maximal-length sequences
`658
`9.35 Power spectrum of shift register
`sequences
`658
`9.36 Low-passfiltering
`9.37 Wrap-up
`661
`9.38 Digital filters
`
`664
`
`660
`
`Self-explanatory circuits
`
`667
`
`9.39 Circuit ideas
`9.40 Bad circuits
`Additional exercises
`
`667
`668
`668
`
`CHAPTER10
`MICROCOMPUTERS
`
`673
`
`Minicomputers, microcomputers, and
`microprocessors
`673
`
`10.01 Computer architecture
`
`674
`
`A computerinstruction set
`
`678
`
`10.02 Assembly language and machine
`language
`678
`10.03 Simplified 8086/8 instruction
`set
`679
`10.04 A programming example
`Bus signals and interfacing
`684
`
`683
`
`685
`689
`
`10.05 Fundamental bussignals: data,
`_address, strobe
`684
`10.06 Programmed I/O: data out
`10.07 Programmed I/O: datain
`10.08 ProgrammedI/O: status
`registers
`690
`10.09 Interrupts
`693
`695
`10.10 Interrupt handling
`697
`10.11 Interrupts in general
`701
`10.12 Direct memory access
`10.13 Summary of the IBM PC’s bus
`signals
`704
`10.14 Synchronous versus asynchronous
`bus communication
`707
`10.15 Other microcomputer buses
`10.16 Connecting peripherals to the
`computer
`711
`
`708
`
`

`

`CONTENTS_xiii
`
`
`Software system concepts
`
`714
`
`CHAPTER 12
`ELECTRONIC CONSTRUCTION
`TECHNIQUES
`827
`
`Prototyping methods
`
`827
`
`714
`10.17 Programming
`10.18 Operating systems, files, and use of
`memory
`716
`12.01 Breadboards.827
`Data communications concepts
`719
`12.02 PC prototyping boards
`828
`12.03 Wire-Wrap panels
`828
`
`10.19 Serial communication and
`ASCII
`720
`10.20 Parallel communication:
`Centronics, SCSI, IPI,
`GPIB (488)
`730
`734
`10.21 Local area networks
`10.22 Interface example: hardware data
`packing
`736
`10.23 Number formats
`
`738
`
`Printed circuits
`
`830
`
`830
`
`12.04 PC board fabrication
`12.05 PC board design
`835
`12.06 Stuffing PC boards
`838
`12.07 Some further thoughts on PC
`boards
`840
`12.08 Advanced techniques
`
`841
`
`CHAPTER 11
`MICROPROCESSORS
`
`743
`
`A detailed look at the 68008 744
`
`11.01 Registers, memory, and I/O 744
`11.02 Instruction set and
`addressing
`745
`11.03 Machine-language
`representation
`750
`11.04 Bus signals
`753
`
`A complete design example: analog
`signal averager
`760
`
`instrument construction
`
`852
`
`12.09 Housing circuit boards in an
`instrument
`852
`12.10 Cabinets
`854
`12.11 Construction hints
`12.12 Cooling
`855
`858
`12.13 Someelectrical hints
`12.14 Where to get components
`
`855
`
`860
`
`CHAPTER 13
`HIGH-FREQUENCY AND HIGH-SPEED
`TECHNIQUES
`863
`
`High-frequency amplifiers
`
`863
`
`760
`"11.05 Circuit design
`11.06 Programming: defining the
`task
`774
`11.07 Programming: details
`11.08 Performance
`796
`11.09 Someafterthoughts
`
`797
`
`777
`
`799
`800
`
`Microprocessorsupport chips
`11.10 Medium-scale integration
`11.11 Peripheral LSI chips
`802
`11.12 Memory
`812
`820
`11.13 Other microprocessors
`11.14 Emulators, development systems,
`logic analyzers, and evaluation
`boards
`821
`
`13.01 Transistor amplifiers at high
`frequencies: first look
`863
`13.02 High-frequency amplifiers: the ac
`model
`864
`13.03 A high-frequency calculation
`example
`866
`13.04 High-frequency amplifier
`configurations
`868
`13.05 A wideband design example
`13.06 Somerefinements to the ac
`model
`872
`13.07 The shunt-series pair
`13.08 Modular amplifiers
`
`872
`873
`
`869
`
`Radiofrequencycircuit elements 879
`
`13.09 Transmission lines
`
`879
`
`

`

`xiv
`
`CONTENTS
`
`13.10 Stubs, baluns, and
`transformers
`881
`882
`13.11 Tuned amplifiers
`13.12 Radiofrequencycircuit
`elements
`884
`13.13 Measuring amplitude or
`power
`888
`
`Radiofrequency communications:
`AM 892
`
`13.14 Some communications
`concepts
`892
`13.15 Amplitude modulation
`13.16 Superheterodyne receiver
`
`894
`895
`
`Advanced modulation methods
`
`897
`
`897
`13.17 Single sideband
`898
`13.18 Frequency modulation
`900
`13.19 Frequency-shift keying
`13.20 Pulse-modulation schemes
`Radiofrequency circuit tricks
`902
`
`900
`
`13.21 Special construction
`techniques
`902
`13.22 Exotic RF amplifiers and
`devices
`903
`
`High-speed switching
`
`904
`
`13.23 Transistor model and
`equations
`905
`13.24 Analog modeling tools
`
`908
`
`Some switching-speed examples
`
`909
`
`909
`13.25 High-voltage driver
`13.26 Open-collector bus driver
`13.27 Example: photomultiplier
`preamp
`911
`
`Self-explanatory circuits
`
`913
`
`13.28 Circuit ideas
`Additional exercises
`
`913
`913
`
`CHAPTER 14
`LOW-POWER DESIGN 917
`
`Introduction
`
`917
`
`14.01 Low-power applications
`
`918
`
`Power sources
`
`920
`
`920
`14.02 Battery types
`14.03 Wall-plug-in units
`14.04 Solar cells
`932
`14.05 Signal currents
`
`933
`
`931
`
`Powerswitching and micropower
`regulators
`938
`
`14.06 Power switching 938
`14.07 Micropowerregulators
`14.08 Ground reference
`944
`14.09 Micropowervoltage references and
`temperature sensors
`948
`
`941
`
`Linear micropower design
`techniques
`948
`
`14.10 Problems of micropower linear
`design
`950
`14.11 Discrete linear design
`example
`950
`14.12 Micropoweroperational
`amplifiers
`951
`14.13 Micropower comparators
`14.14 Micropowertimers and
`oscillators
`965
`
`965
`
`Micropowerdigital design
`
`969
`
`969
`14.15 CMOSfamilies
`970
`14.16 Keeping CMOS low power
`14.17 Micropower microprocessors and
`peripherals
`974
`14.18 Microprocessor design example:
`degree-day logger
`978
`
`910
`
`Self-explanatory circuits
`
`985
`
`14.19 Circuit ideas
`
`985
`
`CHAPTER 15
`MEASUREMENTS AND SIGNAL
`PROCESSING 987
`
`Overview 987
`
`Measurement transducers
`
`988
`
`988
`15.01 Temperature
`996
`15.02 Light level
`15.03 Strain and displacement
`
`1001
`
`

`

`CONTENTS
`
`xv
`
`1056
`
`15.04 Acceleration, pressure, force,
`velocity
`1004
`1007
`15.05 Magnetic field
`1007
`15.06 Vacuum gauges
`1008
`15.07 Particle detectors
`15.08 Biological and chemical voltage
`probes
`1012
`
`Precision standards and precision
`measurements
`1016
`
`1016
`15.09 Frequency standards
`15.10 Frequency, period, and time-
`interval measurements
`1019
`15.11 Voltage and resistance standards
`and measurements
`1025
`
`Bandwidth-narrowing techniques
`
`1026
`
`15.12 The problem of signal-to-noise
`ratio
`1026
`15.13 Signal averaging and multichannel
`averaging
`1026
`15.14 Making a signal periodic
`15.15 Lock-in detection
`1031
`15.16 Pulse-height analysis
`1034
`15.17 Time-to-amplitude converters
`1035
`
`1030
`
`Spectrum analysis and Fourier
`transforms
`1035
`
`1035
`15.18 Spectrum analyzers
`15.19 Off-line spectrum analysis
`
`1038
`
`APPENDIXES
`
`1043
`
`Appendix A
`The oscilloscope
`Appendix B
`Math review 1050
`
`1045
`
`Appendix C
`The 5% resistor color code
`
`1053
`
`Appendix D
`1% Precision resistors
`
`1054
`
`Appendix E
`How to draw schematic diagrams
`Appendix F
`Load lines
`
`1059
`
`Appendix G
`Transistor saturation
`
`1062
`
`Appendix H
`LC Butterworth filters
`
`1064
`
`Appendix I
`Electronics magazines and journals
`1068
`
`Appendix J
`IC prefixes
`Appendix K
`Data sheets
`
`1069
`
`1072
`
`1073
`
`2N4400-1 NPN transistor
`LF411-12 JFET operational
`amplifier
`1078
`LM317 3-terminal adjustable
`regulator
`1086
`
`Self-explanatory circuits
`
`1038
`
`Bibliography
`
`1095
`
`15.20 Circuit ideas
`
`1038
`
`Index
`
`1101
`
`

`

`TABLES
`
`109
`
`129
`
`166
`
`43
`Diodes
`Small-signal transistors
`JFETs
`125
`126
`MOSFETs
`128
`Dual matched JFETs
`Current regulator diodes
`Power MOSFETs
`164
`BJT-MOSFET comparison
`Electrostatic voltages
`170
`Operational amplifiers
`196
`Recommended op-amps
`208
`High-voltage op-amps
`213
`Power op-amps
`214
`Time-domain filter comparison
`273
`274
`VCVSlow-pass filters
`555-type oscillators . 289
`Selected VCOs
`293
`Powertransistors
`314
`Transient suppressors
`Power-line filters
`327
`Rectifiers
`331
`Zener and reference diodes
`500mW zeners
`334
`336
`IC voltage references
`342
`Fixed voltage regulators
`Adjustable voltage regulators
`346
`Dual-tracking regulators
`Seven precision op-amps
`Precision op-amps
`404
`High-speed precision op-amps
`412
`418
`Fast buffers
`Instrumentation amplifiers
`4-bit integers
`477
`TTL and CMOSgates
`Logic identities
`491
`Buffers
`560
`
`326
`
`334
`
`352
`401
`
`429
`
`484
`
`8.5
`
`8.6
`
`8.7
`
`8.8
`
`8.9
`
`8.10
`8.11
`9.1
`
`9.2
`
`9.3
`
`9.4
`
`a5
`
`9.6
`
`10.1
`
`10.2
`
`10.3
`
`10.4
`
`10.5
`
`10.6
`
`11.1
`
`11.2
`
`112
`
`11.4
`
`11.5
`
`11.6
`
`11.7
`
`11.8
`
`12.1
`
`12.2
`
`13.1
`
`13.2
`
`14.1
`
`14.2
`
`14.3
`
`xvi
`
`561
`562
`
`634
`
`730
`
`748
`749
`
`709
`
`560
`Transceivers
`561
`Decoders
`Magnitude comparators
`Monostable multivibrators
`D-registers and latches
`562
`Counters
`563
`564
`Shift registers
`570
`Logic family characteristics
`Allowed connections between logic
`families
`574
`Comparators
`584
`D/A converters
`620
`A/D converters
`632
`Integrating A/D converters
`IBM PC bus’
`704
`Computer buses
`ASCII codes
`721
`RS-232 signals
`724
`727
`Serial data standards
`Centronics (printer) signals
`68000/8 instruction set
`746
`Allowable addressing modes
`68000/8 addressing modes
`68008 bussignals
`753
`68000/8 vectors
`788
`804
`Zilog 8530 registers
`Zilog 8530 serial port initialization
`806
`822
`Microprocessors
`PC graphic patterns
`Venturi fans
`858
`RFtransistors
`877
`878
`Wideband op-amps
`922
`Primary batteries
`923
`Battery characteristics
`Primary-battery attributes
`
`839
`
`930
`
`

`

`TABLES©xvii
`
`14.4
`14.5
`
`14.6
`14.7
`14.8
`
`942
`Low-powerregulators
`Micropowervoltage references
`949
`Micropowerop-amps
`Programmable op-amps
`Low-power comparators
`
`956
`958
`966
`
`976
`14.9 Microprocessor controllers
`14.10 Temperature logger current drain
`983
`990
`15.1 Thermocouples
`1055
`D.1
`Selected resistor types
`H.1 Butterworth low-passfilters
`
`1064
`
`

`

` 522
`
`DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
`Chapter 8
`
`aS
`
`
`Figure 8.67. A digital delay can replace one-shot delays.
`
`|
`
`system clocks is common in synchronous
`circuits.
`
`8.23 Timing with counters
`
`there are
`As we have just emphasized,
`many good reasons for avoiding the use of
`monostables in logic design. Figure 8.68
`Shows another case where flip-flops and
`counters (cascaded toggling flip-flops) can
`be used in place of a monostable to gener-
`ate a long output pulse. The ’4060is a 14-
`stage CMOSbinary counter (14 cascaded
`flip-flops). A rising edge at the input brings
`Q HIGH,enabling the counter. After 2”~1
`clock pulses, Q,, goes HIGH,clearing the
`flip-flop and the counter. This circuit gen-
`erates an accurate long pulse whose length
`may be varied by factors of 2. The ’4060
`
`also includes internal oscillator circuitry
`that can substitute for the external clock
`reference. Our experienceis that the inter-
`nal oscillator has poor frequency tolerance
`and (in some HC versions) may malfunc-
`tion.
`You can get complete integrated circuits
`to implement timing with counters. The
`ICM7240/50/60 (Intersil, Maxim) have 8-
`bit or 2-digit
`internal counters and the
`necessary logic to make delays equal to an
`integral number of counts (1-255 or 1-99
`counts); you can set the numbereither with
`“hardwired” connections or with external
`thumbwheel switches. The ICM7242 is
`similar, but with prewired divide-by-128
`counter. Exar makesa close cousin, called
`the XR2243, which has a fixed divide-by-
`1024 counter.
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`HiaSRElmina
`anatase
`
`

`

`
`
`ihteISrh
`
`cyuntgaratVentenon
`
`
`sghseseASctsaeSRBaetna
`
`
`
`SEQUENTIAL FUNCTIONS AVAILABLEASICs’
`8.24 Latches and registers
`
`523
`
`J~«— 8192 clock
`—>|
`TTL periods
`output
`
`I
`start
`
`,
`
`Q,05,
`°** Or,
`Q>
`‘'HC4060
`.
`
`R
`
` Figure 8.68. Digital generation of
`
`long pulses.
`
`SEQUENTIAL FUNCTIONS AVAILABLE
`AS ICs
`As with the combinational functions we
`described earlier, it is possible to integrate
`various combinations of flip-flops and
`gates onto a single chip.
`In the follow-
`ing sections we will present a survey of the
`most useful types, listed according to func-
`tion.
`As with pure combinational logic, pro-
`grammable logic (PALs and GALsin par-
`ticular) provides an attractive alternative
`to the use of prewired sequential functions.
`We'll talk about them, also, after looking at
`the standard functions.
`
`8.24 Latches and registers
`
`Latches and registers are used to “hold”
`a set of bits; even if the inputs change.
`A set of D flip-flops constitutes a register,
`but it has more inputs and outputs. than
`necessary. Since you don’t need separate
`clocks, or SET and CLEAR inputs, those
`lines can be tied together, requiring fewer
`pins and therefore allowing 8 flip-flops to
`fit in a 20-pin package. The popular ’574
`is an octal D register with positive clock
`edge and three-state outputs; the ’273 is
`similar, but has a reset instead of three-
`state outputs. Figure 8.69 shows a quad D
`register with both true and complemented
`outputs.
`The term “latch” is usually reserved
`for a special kind of register:
`one in
`which the outputs follow the inputs when
`
`enabled, and hold the last value when
`disabled.
`Since the term “latch” has
`become ambiguous with use,
`the terms
`“transparent latch” and “type D register”
`are often used to distinguish these closely
`related devices. As an example, the °573
`is the octal transparent-latch equivalent of
`the °574 D register.
`
`inputs
`p
`
`outputs
`
`latched
`
`Figure 8.69. °175 4-bit D register.
`
`Somevariations on the latch/register are
`as follows:
`(a) random-access memories
`(RAMs), which let you write to, and read
`from, a (usually large) set of registers, but
`only one (or at most a few) at a time;
`RAMscome in sizes from a handful of
`bytes up to 1M bytes or more andare used
`primarily for memory in microprocessor
`systems (see Chapters 10 and 11); (b) ad-
`dressable latches, a multibit latch that lets
`you update individual bits while keeping
`the others unchanged; (c) a latch or regis-
`ter built into a larger chip, for example a
`
`

`

` 524
`
`DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
`Chapter 8
`
`
`.
`
`digital-to-analog converter; such a device
`only needs the input applied momentarily
`(with appropriate clocking edge), since an
`internal register can hold the data.
`Table 8.9 at the end of the chapterlists —
`most of the useful registers and latches.
`Note features such as input enable,
`re-
`set,
`three-state outputs, and “broadside”
`pinout (inputs on oneside of the chip, out-
`puts on the other); the latter is very con-
`venient when youare laying out a printed-
`circuit board.
`
`8.25 Counters
`
`As we mentioned earlier, it is possible to
`make a “counter” by connectingflip-flops —
`together. There is available an amazing
`variety of such devices as single chips.
`Here are some of the features to look for:
`
`Size
`
`You can get BCD (divide-by-10) and bi-
`nary (or hexadecimal, divide-by-16) coun-
`ters in the popular 4-bit category. There
`are larger counters, up to 24 bits (notall
`available as outputs), and there are modulo-
`n-counters that divide by an integer n,
`specified as an input. You can always
`cascade counters (including synchronous
`types) to get more stages.
`:
`
`Clocking
`
`An important distinction is whether the
`counter is a “ripple” counter or a “syn-
`chronous” counter. The latter clocks all
`flip-flops simultaneously, whereasin a rip-
`ple counter each stage is clocked by the
`output of the previous stage. Ripple coun-
`ters generate transient states, since the ear-
`lier stages toggle slightly before the later
`ones. For instance, a ripple counter going
`from a count of 7 (0111) to 8 (1000) goes
`through the states 6, 4, and 0 along the way.
`This doesn’t cause trouble in well-designed
`circuits, but it would in a circuit that used
`
`gates to look for a particular state (this is a
`good place to use something like a D flip-
`flop, so that the state is examined only at
`the clock edge). Ripple counters are slower
`than synchronous counters, because of the
`accumulated propagation delays. Ripple
`-counters clock on negative-going edges for
`easy expandability (by connecting the Q
`output of one counter directly to the clock
`input of the next); synchronous counters
`clock on the positive edge.
`We favor the °160-"163 family of 4-
`bit synchronous counters for most applica-
`tions that don’t require some special fea-
`ture. The ’590 and °592 are good 8-bit
`synchronous counters. Figure 8.70 shows
`the 390 dual BCD ripple counter.
`
`
`
`Figure 8.70. 390 dual BCDripple counter.
`
`Up/down
`
`Some counters can count in either direc-
`tion, under control of some inputs. The
`two possibilities are (a) an U/D’inputthat
`sets the direction of count and (b) a pair
`of clocking inputs, one for UP, one for
`DOWN.Examples are the 7191 and 7193,
`respectively. The ’569 and ’579 are useful
`8-bit up/down counters.
`
`Load and clear
`
`Most counters have data inputs so that
`they can be preset to a given count. This
`
`
`
`
`
`
`

`

`SEQUENTIAL FUNCTIONS AVAILABLEASICs
`8.26 Shift registers
`
`525
`
`is handy if you want to make a modulo-
`n counter, for example. The loadfunc-
`tion can be either synchronous or asyn-
`chronous: the ’160-’163 have synchronous
`load, which means that data on the input
`lines are transferred to the counter coinci-
`dent with the next clock edge,if the LOAD’
`line is also asserted LOW; the ’190-193
`are asynchronous, or jam-load, which
`' means that input data are transferred to
`the counter when LOAD’isasserted, inde-
`pendent of the clock. The term “parallel
`load” is sometimes used, since all bits are
`loaded at the sametime.
`The CLEAR (or RESET) function is a _
`form of presetting. The majority of coun-
`ters have a jam-type CLEAR function,
`though some have synchronous CLEAR;
`for example,the ’160/161 are jam CLEAR,
`while
`the
`7°162/163
`are
`synchronous
`CLEAR.
`
`counterfits in a 16-pin package. The 593
`is similar, but in a 20-pin package.
`If you want a counter to use with a
`display,
`there are several
`that combine
`counter,
`latch, 7-segment decoder, and
`driver on one chip. An example is the
`74C925-74C928 series of 4-digit counters.
`Another amusing chip is the TIL306/7, a
`counter with display on one chip: You
`just look at the IC, which lights up with a
`digit telling the count! Figure 8.71 shows
`a nice LSI (large-scale-integration) counter
`circuit that doesn’t require a lot of support
`circuits.
`Table 8.10 at the end of the chapter
`lists most of the counter chips that you
`might want to use. Manyof them are only
`available in one family (e.g., LS or F), so
`be sure to checkthe data books before you
`design with them.
`
`Other counter features
`
`Some counters feature latches on the out-
`put lines; these are always of the transpar-
`ent type, so the counter can be used as
`if no latch were present.
`(Keep in mind
`that any counter with parallel-load inputs
`can function as latch, but you can’t count
`at the same time as data are held, as you
`can with a counter/latch chip.) The combi-
`nation of counter plus latch is sometimes
`very convenient, e.g., if you want to dis-
`play or output the previous count while
`_ beginning a new counting cycle.
`In a fre-
`quency counter this would allow a stable
`display, with updating after each counting
`cycle, rather than a display that repeatedly
`gets reset to zero and then counts up.
`There are counters with three-state out-
`puts.
`These are great for applications
`wherethe digits (or 4-bit groups) are multi-
`plexed onto’a busfor display or transfer to
`someother device. An example is the 779,
`an 8-bit synchronous binary counter whose
`three-state outputs also serve as parallel
`inputs; by sharing input/output lines, the
`
`8.26 Shift registers
`
`If you connect a series of flip-flops so
`that each Q output drives the next D
`input, and all clock inputs are driven
`simultaneously, you get. what’s called a
`“shift register.” At each clock pulse the
`pattern of 0’s and 1’s in the register shifts
`to the right, with the data at the first D
`input entering from the left. As with flip-
`flops, the data present at the serial input
`just prior to the clock pulse are entered,
`and there is the usual propagation delay to
`the outputs. Thus they may be cascaded
`without fear of a logic race. Shift registers
`are very useful for conversion of parallel
`data (n bits present simultaneously, on n
`separate lines) to serial data (one bit after
`another, on a single data line), and vice
`versa. They’re also handy as memories,
`particularly if the data are always read and
`written in order. As with counters and
`latches, shift registers come in a pleasant
`variety of prefab styles. The important
`things to look for are the following:
`
` 32i3 ‘ &
`
`
`
`(ensdareNeAeawenrkapsi
`
`
`
`spatealgemgssate.
`
`
`
`
`
`‘IGSREINdietgearingsinhaae:
`
`
`
`4
`
`‘ e i|t4a é
`
`
`
`.e éy
`
`

`

` 526
`
`DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
`Chapter 8
`
`INPUT A
`
`INPUT 8B
`
`FREQUENCY
`PERIOD